Chemical signals and reconstruction of life strategies from ancient human bones and teeth - problems and perspectives

• Authors: Krzysztof Szostek

Abstracts

EN

Chemical analyses of historical and prehistoric bone material provide us with a complex body of knowledge in bioarcheological studies. These can be used for reconstructing diet, migration, climate changes and the weaning process. The analysis of enamel, dentin and bones allows researchers to gather data on life strategies of an individual by retrospectively tracing his ontogenetic phases. This is made possible through knowledge of the mineralization periods of permanent and deciduous teeth while simultaneously taking account of differences between enamel, dentin and bone remodelling rates, dependent on the age of the individual. Yet, the large interpretative potential of isotope analyses of bone material is severely limited by diagenesis. The accurate recording of diagenetic changes in historical human bone material is a current main trend in bioarcheological research. Today, a highly specialised set of research tools is used for verifying whether bones unearthed at archeological sites are suitable for isotope tests. Isotope determinations are pivotal in this research as reconstructions of paleodiets or migrations of our ancestors can be based only on material that has been maintained intact in sufficient proportions post mortem.

PL

Analizy chemiczne historycznego i przedhistorycznego materiału kostnego dostarczają kompleksowej wiedzy w badaniach bioarcheologicznych i mogą być wykorzystane do rekonstrukcji diety, migracji, zmian klimatycznych czy też procesu odstawienia od piersi. Ważnym aspektem tych badań jest możliwość uzyskania wiedzy o strategiach życiowych osobnika dzięki śledzeniu retrospektywnemu różnych jego faz ontogenetycznych. Jest to możliwe dzięki znanym okresom mineralizacji poszczególnych typów zębów stałych i mlecznych (z uwzględnieniem różnic pomiędzy szkliwem a zębiną), a także odmienności tempa remodelingu kostnego w zależności od wieku osobnika. Ponieważ duży potencjał interpretacyjny, który niosą ze sobą analizy izotopowe materiału kostnego podlega jednak znacznym ograniczeniom, związanym z nieprzewidywalną diagenezą, w badaniach wykorzystuje się specjalne metody pozwalające weryfikować pośmiertne zmiany struktury chemicznej materiału. W procedurach chemicznych analiz izotopowych efekt końcowy badań jest zawsze obarczony większymi lub mniejszymi błędami wpływającymi na ostateczny wynik. Ich źródła można przedstawić następująco: obróbka danych 10%, pomiar i kalibracja 30%, pobieranie i przygotowanie próbki 60%. Uzyskane wyniki będące efektem zmian diagenetycznych dostarczają wiedzy geochemicznej (interesującej geologów) a nie biochemicznej (interesującej antropologów), w związku z tym późniejsze próby interpretacji danych diagenetycznych nie są zasadne i nie wnoszą również żadnej istotnej wiedzy biologicznej. Dlatego gdy przedmiotem badań antropologicznych są pierwiastki i ich izotopy, niezbędna jest kompleksowa analiza materiału, uwzględniająca ocenę organicznej i nieorganicznej struktury kości i zębów.Niezbędne są również dane archeozoologiczne oraz próbki wody środowiskowej (izotopy tlenu) i skał rodzimych (izotopy strontu) w celu określenia tła archeologicznego, geofizycznego i troficznego. Należy pamiętać, że istnieje prostoliniowa dodatnia zależność pomiędzy utratą frakcji organicznej kości (% kolagenu, C/N) a stopniem jej krystalizacji (Ca/P, CI). Najlepszą strategią badawczą związaną z analizami izotopowymi jest wykorzystanie apatytów pochodzących ze szkliwa i z zębiny lub kości zawierających dużą ilość oryginalnego kolagenu. Kości pozbawione składników organicznych są bardziej narażone na pośmiertne zmiany izotopowe oraz pierwiastkowe. Należy zwrócić także uwagę, że duża zawartość struktur organicznych utrudnia pozyskiwanie fosforanów i węglanów z kości. Nie zawsze uzyskane wyniki stopnia krystaliczności kości (CI) mieszczą się w zakresie odpowiadającym współczesnym materiałom (2,5-3,3). Dla materiału archeologicznego wartości te nie powinny przekraczać CI = 3,5. Zdarza się jednak, że pomimo wyższego CI materiał jest przydatny do dalszych analiz, ponieważ np. utrata pewnej części fosforanów nie zawsze jest związana ze zmianami stosunków izotopowych tlenu. Jeżeli materiał nie wykazuje istotnej korelacji pomiędzy izotopami tlenu a wskaźnikiem CI (tak jak we współczesnych zębach i kościach), oznacza to biogenny (niezmieniony) skład izotopowy. Podsumowując należy stwierdzić, że przed biologiczną interpretacją danych uzyskanych z analiz chemicznych kości i zębów trzeba zawsze zweryfikować stopień ewentualnych zmian diagenetycznych w badanym materiale.

Keywords

EN

bone chemistry; diagenesis; stable isotopes; diet; migration

• Publisher: Sciendo
• Journal: Anthropological Review
• Year: 2009
• Volume: 72
• Issue: 1
• Pages: 3-30

Contributors

author

Krzysztof Szostek

• Department of Anthropology, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University, Ingardena 6, 30-060 Kraków, Poland

References

• Ambrose S. H., 1990,Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis,J. Archaeol. Sci.,17, 431-51
• Ambrose S. H., 1993,Isotopic analysis of paleodiets: Methodological and interpretive consideration, [in:]Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue: Chemical Analyses in Anthropology, M. K. Sandford, (ed.) Gordon and Breach, Landorne PA, pp. 50-130
• Ambrose S. H., J. Buikstra, H. W. Krueger, 2003Status and gender differences in diet at Mound 72, Cahokia, revealed by isotopic analysis of bone,J. Anthropol. Archaeol.,22, 217-26
• Ambrose S. H., L. Norr, 1992,On stable isotopic data and prehistoric subsistence in the Soconusco region,Curr. Anthropol.,33, 401-4
• Ambrose S. H., L. Norr, 1993,Experimental evidence for the relationship of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those of bone collagen and carbonate, [in:]Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, J. B. Lambert, G. Grupe (eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1-37
• Ballasse M., 2003,Potential biases in sampling design and interpretation of intra-tooth isotope analysis,Int. J. Osteoarchaeol.,13, 3-10
• Ballasse M., H. Bocherens, A. Mariotti, 1999,Intra-bone variability of collagen and apatite isotopic composition used as evidence of a change of diet,J. Archaeol. Sci.,26, 593-98
• Ballase M., H. Bocherens, A. Mariotti, S. H. Ambrose, 2001,Detection of dietary changes by intra-tooth carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis: An experimental study of dentine collagen of cattle (Boss taurus),J. Archaeol. Sci.,28, 235-45
• Bentley R. A., T. D. Price, E. Stephan, 2004,Determining the local87Sr/86Sr range for archaeological skeletons: A case study from Neolithic Europe,J. Archaeol. Sci.,31, 365-75
• Bisel S. C., 1988,Nutrition in first century Herculaneum,Anthropologie (Brno),26, 61-66
• Bocherens H., 1997,Isotopic biogeochemistry as a marker of Neandertal diet,Anthr. Anz.,55, 101-20
• Bryant J. D., B. Luz, P. N. Froelich, 1994,Oxygen isotopic composition of fossil horse tooth phosphate as a record of continental paleoclimate,Paleogeogr. Paleoclimat. Paleoecol.,107, 303-16
• Budd P., J. Montgomery, B. Barreiro, R. G. Thomas, 2000,Differential diagenesis of strontium in archaeological human tissues,Appl. Geochem.,15, 687-94
• Child A. M., 1995,Towards and understanding of the microbial decomposition of archaeological bone in the burial environment,J. Archaeol. Sci.,22, 165-74
• DeNiro M. J., 1985,Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to paleodietary reconstruction,Nature,317, 806-9
• Dolphin A. E., A. H. Goodman, 2009,Maternal diets, nutritional status, and znic in contemporary Mexican infants' teeth: Implications for reconstructing paleodiets,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,140, 399-409
• Dubois S., J. L. Blin, B. Bouchaud, S. Lefebre, 2007,Isotope tropic-step fractionation of suspension-feeding species: Implications for food partitioning in coastal ecosystems,J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.,351, 121-28
• Dupras T. L., H. P. Schwarcz, 2001,Strangers in a strange land: Stable isotope evidence for human migration in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt,J. Archaeol. Sci.,28, 1199-208
• Edward J. B., R. A. Benfer, 1993,The effect of diagenesis on the Paloma skeletal material, [in:]Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue: Chemical Analyses in Anthropology, M. K. Sandford (ed.), Gordon and Breach, Landorne PA, pp. 183-268
• Elliot J. C., 1994,Structure and chemistry of the apatites and other calcium orthophosphates, Amsterdam, Elsevier
• Evans J., N. Stoodley, C. Chenery, 2006,A strontium and oxygen isotope assessment of a possible fourth century immigrant population in a Hampshire cemetery, southern England,J. Archaeol. Sci.,33, 265-72
• Ezzo J. A., 1992,A test of diet versus diagenesis at Ventana cave, Arizona,J. Archaeol. Sci.,19, 23-37
• Ezzo J. A., C. M. Johnson, T. D. Price, 1997,Analytical perspectives of prehistoric migration: a case study from East Central Arizona,J. Archaeol. Sci.,24, 447-66
• Farnum, J. F., M. D. Glascock, M. K. Sandford, S. Geritsen, 1995,Trace elements in ancient human bone and associated soil using NAA,J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem.,196, 267-74
• Fisher A., J. Olsen, M. Richards, J. Heinemeier, A.E Sveinbjornsdottir, P. Bennike, 2007,Coast-inland mobility and diet in the Danish Mesolithic and Neolithic: Evidence from stable isotope values of humans and dogs,J. Archaeol. Sci.,34, 2125-50
• Fuller B. T., J. L. Fuller, D. A. Harris, R. E. M. Hedges, 2006a,Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,129, 279-93
• Fuller B. T., T. I. Molleson, D. A. Harris, L. T. Gilmour, R. E. M. Hedges, 2006b,Isotopic evidence for breastfeeding and possible adult dietary differences from Late/Sub-Roman Britain,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,129, 45-54
• Gawlik D., D. Behne, P. Bratter, W. Gatschke, H. Gessner, D. Kraft, 1982,The suitability of the iliac crest biopsy in the element analysis of bone and marrow,J. Clinic. Chem. Clinic. Biochem.,20, 499-507
• Gibson, I. R., W. Bonfield, 2002,Novel synthesis and characterization of an AB-type carbonate - substituted hydroxyapatite,J. Biomed. Mater. Res.,59, 697-708
• Grupe G., U. Dreses-Werringloer, F. Parsche, 1993,Initial stages of bone decomposition: Causes and consequences, [in:]Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, J. B. Lambert, G. Grupe (eds.), Springer- Verlag, Berlin, pp. 257-74
• Grupe G., H. Pipenbrink, 1988,Trace element concentrations in excavated bones by microorganisms, [in:]Trace Elements in Environmental History, G. Grupe, B. Herrmann (eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 103-12
• Grupe G., H. Piepenbrink, M. J. Schoeninger, 1989,Note on microbial influence on stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone,Appl. Geochem.,4, 299
• Grupe G., T. D. Price, P. Schroeter, F. Sollner, C. M. Johnson, B. L. Beard, 1997,Mobility of Bell Baker people revealed by strontium isotope ratios of tooth and bone: A study of southern Bavarian skeletal remains,Appl. Geochem.,12, 517-25
• Hancock R. G., M. D. Gynpas, K. P. H. Pritzker, 1989,The abuse of bone analyses for archaeological dietary studies,Archaeometry,31, 169-80
• Hart J. P., W. A. Lovis, J. K. Schulenberg, G. R. Urquhart, 2007,Paleodietary implication from stable carbon isotope analysis of experimental cooking residues,J. Archaeol. Sci.,34, 804-13
• Hedges R. E. M., L. M. Reynard, 2007,Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology,J. Archaeol. Sci.,34, 1240-51
• Honch N. V., T. F. G. Higham, J. Chapman, B. Gaydarska, R. E. M. Hedges, 2006,A paleodietary investigation of carbon (13C/12C) and nitrogen (15N/14N) in human and faunal bones from the Cooper Age cemeteries of Varna I and Durankulak, Bulgaria,J. Archaeol. Sci.,33, 1493-504
• Hoogewerff J., W. Papeych, M. Kralik, M. Berner, P. Vroon, et al., 2001,The last domicile of Iceman from Hauslabjoch: A geochemical approach using Sr, C and O isotopes and trace element signatures,J. Archaeol. Sci.,28, 983-89
• Hoppe K. A., P. L. Koch, T. T. Furutani, 2003,Assessing the preservation of biogenic strontium in fossil bones and tooth enamel, Int.J. Osteoarchaeol.,13, 20-28
• Humphrey L. T., M. C. Dean, T. E. Jeffries, M. Penn, 2008,Unlocking evidence of early diet from tooth enamel,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,105, 6834-39
• Hurt R. W., T.E Davis, 1981,Strontium isotopes as traces of airborne fly ash from coal-fired power plants,Environ. Geol.,3, 363-97
• Iacumin P., H. Bocherens, L. Chaix, A. Marioth, 1998,Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes as Dietary Indicators of ancient Nubian populations (Northern Sudan),J. Archaeol. Sci.,25, 293-301
• Iacumin P., H. Bocherens, A. D. Huertas, A. Mariotti, A. Longinelli, 1997,A stable isotope study of fossil mammal remain from the Paglicci cave, Southern Italy. N and C as paleoenvironmental indicators,Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett.,148, 349-57
• Iacumin P., H. Bocherens, A. Mariotti, A. Longinelli, 1996,An isotopic paleoenvironmental study of human skeletal remains from Nile Valley,Paleogeogr. Paleoclimat. Paleoecol.,126, 15-30
• Iacumin P., V. Nikolaev, M. Ramigni, 2000,C and N isotope measurements on Eurasian fossil mammals, 40 000 to 10 000 years BP: Herbivore physiologies and paleoenvironmental reconstruction,Paleogeogr. Paleoclimat. Paleoecol.,163, 22-47
• Jørkov M. L., J. Heinemeier, N. Lynnerup, 2007,Evaluating bone collagen extraction methods for stable isotope analysis in dietary,J. Archaeol. Sci.,34: 1824-29
• Katzenberg, M. A., 2000,Stable isotope analysis: A tool for studying past diet, demography, and life history, [in]Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, M. A. Katzenberg, S. R. Saunders (eds.), Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 305-28
• Katzenberg, M. A., A. Weber, 1999,Stable isotope ecology and paleodiet in the Lake Baikal region of Siberia,J. Archaeol. Sci.,26: 651-59
• Knobbe N., J. Vogl, W. Pritzkow, U. Panne, H. Fry, et al., 2006,C and N stable isotope variation in urine and milk of cattle depending on the diet,Anal. Bioanal. Chem.,386, 104-8
• Knudson K. J., T. D. Price, 2007,Utility of multiple chemical techniques in archaeological residential mobility studies: Case studies from Twinaku- and Chiribaya-Affiliated sites in the Andes,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,132, 25-39
• Koch P. L., N. Tuross, M. L. Fogel, 1997,The effects of sample treatment and diagenesis on the isotopic integrity of carbonate in biogenic hydroxylapatite,J. Archaeol. Sci.,24, 417-29
• Kohn M. J., M. J. Schoeninger, W. W. Baker, 1999,Altered states: Effects of diagenesis on fossil tooth chemistry,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,63, 2737-47
• Krueger H. W., 1991,Exchange of carbon with biological apatite,J. Archaeol. Sci.,18, 355-61
• Krueger H. W., C. H. Sullivan, 1984,Models for carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bone, [in:]Stable Isotopes in Nutrition, J. E. Turnlund, P. E. Johnson (eds.), American Chemical Society, Symposium Series,258, Washington D. C., pp. 205-22
• Le Geros R. Z., 1991,Calcium phosphates in oral biology and medicine, Karger, Paris
• Lee-Thorp J., M. Sponheimer, 2003,Three case studies used to reassess the reliability of fossil bone and enamel isotope signals for paleodietary studies,J. Anthropol. Archaeol.,22, 208-16
• Lee-Thorp J., M. Sponheimer, 2006,Contributions of biogeochemistry to understanding hominin dietary ecology,Year. Phys. Anthropol.,49, 131-48
• Lee-Thorp J. A., M. Sponheimer, 2007,Contribution of stable light isotopes to paleoenvironmental reconstruction, [in:]Handbook of paleoanthropology, W. Henke, I. Tattersall (eds.), Springer, Berlin, pp. 289-310
• Lee-Thorp J. A., M. Sponheimmer, N. J. van der Merwe, 2003,What do stable isotopes tell us about hominid dietary and ecological niches in the Pliocene,Int. J. Osteoarchaeol.,13, 104-13
• Lee-Thorp J. A., N. J. van der Merwe, 1987,Carbon isotope analysis of fossil bone apatite,S. Afr. J. Sci.,83, 712-15
• Lee-Thorp J. A., N. J. van der Merwe, 1991,Aspects of the chemistry of modern and fossil biological apatite,J. Archaeol. Sci.,18, 343-54
• Lee-Thorp J. A., N. J. van der Merwe, C. K. Brain, 1989,Isotopic evidence for dietary differences between two extinct baboon species from Swartkrans, South Africa.J. Hum. Evol.,18, 183-90
• Longinelli A., 1984,Oxygen isotopes in mammal bone phosphate: A new tool for paleohydrological and paleoclimatological research,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,48, 385-90
• Luz B., A. B. Cormie, H. P. Schwarcz, 1990,Oxygen isotope variations in phosphate of deer bones,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,54, 1723-28
• Luz B., Y. Kolodny, M. Horowitz, 1984,Fractionation of oxygen isotopes between mammalian bone-phosphate and environmental drinking water,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,48, 1689-93
• Mays S., 1998,The archaeology of human bones, Routledge, London
• McGlynn G., 2007,Using 13C-, 15N- and 18O stable isotope analysis of human bone tissue to identify transhumance, high altitude habitation and reconstruct palaeodiet for the early medieval Alpine population at Volders, Austria, PhD dissertation, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München
• Minigawa M., E. Wada, 1984,Stepwise enrichment of 15 N along food chains: Further evidence and the relation between 15 N and animal age,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,48, 1135-40
• Molleson T., 1987,Trace elements in human teeth, [in:]Trace Elements in Environmental History, G. Grupe, B. Herrmann (eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 67-83
• Munro, L. E., F. J. Longstaffe, C. D. White, 2007,Burning and boiling of modern deer bone: effects on the oxygen isotope composition of bioapatite phosphate,Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol.,249, 90-102
• Munro, L. E., F. J. Longstaffe, C. D. White, 2008,Effects of heating on the carbon and oxygen-isotope compositions of structural carbonate in bioapatite from modern deer bone,Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimat. Palaeoecol.,266, 142-50
• Müller W., 2005,Isotopic tracing in Archaeometry, Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200
• Niedźwiecki T., J. J. Kuryszko, 2007,Biologia kości, PWN, Warszawa
• Ostrom P. G., M. Colunga-Garcia, S. H. Gage, 1997,Establishing pathways of energy flow for insect predators using stable isotope ratios: Field and laboratory evidence,Oecologia,109, 108-13
• Ovalle C., S. Urquiaga, A. Del Pozo, E. Zegal, S. Arredondo, 2006,Nitrogen fixation in six forage legumes in mediterranean central Chile,Acta Agric. Scand.,56, 277-83
• Pearsal D. M., 2008,Paleoethnobotany, A Handbook of Procedures, MPG Books, Cornwall
• Pearson J. A., H. Buitenhuis, R. E. M. Hedges, L. Martin, N. Russel, K. C. Twiss, 2007,New light on early caprine herding strategies from isotope analysis: A case study from Neolithic Anatolia,J. Archaeol. Sci.,34, 2170-79
• Peters C. R., J. C. Vogel, 2005,Africa's wild C4plant foods and possible early hominid diets,J. Hum. Evol.,48, 219-36
• Price T. D., R. A. Bentley, J. Lunig, D. Gronenborn, J. Wahl, 2001,Prehistoric human migration in the Linearbandkeramik of Central Europe,Antiquity,75, 593-603
• Price T. D., G. Grupe, P. Schroter, 1994a,Reconstruction of migration patterns in the Bell Baker period by stable strontium isotope analysis,Appl. Geochem.,9, 413-17
• Price T. D., G. Grupe, P. Schroeter, 1998,Migration in the Bell Baker period of Central Europe,Antiquity,72, 405-11
• Price T. D., C. M. Johnson, J. A. Ezzo, J. Ericson, J. H. Burton, 1994b,Residential mobility in the prehistoric southwest US: A preliminary study using strontium isotope analysis,J. Archaeol. Sci.,21, 315-30
• Price T. D., C. Knipper, G. Grupe, V. Smrcka, 2004,Strontium isotopes and prehistoric human migration: The Bell Beaker period in Central Europe,Europ. J. Archaeol.,7, 9-40
• Price T. D., L. Manzanilla, W. D. Middleton, 2000,Immigration and the ancient city of Teotihuan in Mexico: A study using strontium isotope ratios in human bone and teeth,J. Archaeol. Sci.,27, 903-13
• Price T. D., J. Wahl, R. A. Bentley, 2006,Isotopic evidence for mobility and group organisation among neolithic farmers at Talheim, Germany, 500 BC,Europ. J. Archaeol.,9, 259-84
• Prowse T. L., H. P. Schwarcz, P. Garnsey, M. Knyf, R. Macchiarelli, L. Bondioli, 2007,Isotopic evidence for age-related immigration to Imperial Rome,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,132, 510-19
• Prowse T., H. P. Schwarcz, S. Sauners, R. Macchiarelli, L. Bondioli, 2004,Isotopic paleodiet studies of skeletons from the Imperial Roman-age cemetery of Isola Scara, Rome, Italy,J. Archaeol. Sci.,31, 259-72
• Richards M. P., R. E. M. Hedges, 1999,Stable isotope evidence for similarities in the types of marine food used by Late Mesolithic humans at sites along the Atlantic coast of Europe,J. Archaeol. Sci.,26, 717-22
• Riehl S., R. Bryson, K. Pustovoytov, 2007,Changing growing conditions for crops during the Near Eastern Bronze Age (3000-1200 BC): the stable carbon isotope evidence,J. Archaeol. Sci.,1, 1-12
• Robinson J. T., 1954,Prehominid dentition and hominid evolution,Evolution,8, 324-34
• Safont S., A. Malgosa, M.E, Subira, J. Gibert, 1998,Can trace elements in fossils provide information about paleodiet,Int. J. Osteoarchaeol.,8, 23-37
• Sanchez-Quevedo M. C., G. Ceballos-Salobrena, I. A. Rodriguez, J. M. Garcia, A. Campos, 2001,Quantitative X-ray microanalytical and histochemical patterns of calcium and phosphorus in enamel in human amelogenesis imperfecta,Int. J. Dev. Biol.,45, 115-17
• Schoeninger M. J., M. J. DeNiro, 1984,Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of bone collagen from marine and terrestrial animals,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,48, 625-39
• Schoeninger M. J., K. Moore, 1992,Bone stable isotope studies in archaeology,J. World. Prehistory,6, 247-95
• Schurr M. R., R. G. Hayes, D. C. Cook, 2008,Thermally induced changes in the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of charred bones, [in]The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, C. W. Schmidt, S. A. Symes (eds.), Academic Press, London, pp. 95-108
• Schwarcz J. P., L. Gibbs, M. Knyf, 1991,Oxygen isotope analysis as an indicator of place of origin, [in:]An Investigation of a Cemetery from the War of 1812, S. Pfeiffer, R. F. Williamson (eds.), Dundrun Press, Toronto, pp. 263-68
• Schweissing M. M., G. Grupe, 2003,Stable strontium isotopes in human teeth and bone: A key to migration events of the late Roman period in Bavaria,J. Archaeol. Sci.,30, 1373-83
• Sealy J., R. Armstrong, C. Schrire, 1995,Beyond lifetime averages: Tracing life histories through isotopic analysis of different calcified tissues from archaeological human skeletons,Antiquity,69, 290-300
• Sealy J. C., N. J. van der Merwe, J. A. Lee- Thorp, J.L Lanham, 1987,Nitrogen isotopic ecology in southern Africa: Implications for environmental and dietary tracing,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,51, 2707-17
• Sillen A., 1981,Post depositional changes in Natufian and Aurignacian faunal bones from Hayonim Cave,Paleorient,7, 81-85
• Sillen A., 1986,Biogenic and diagenetic Sr/Ca in Plio-Pleistocene fossils in the Omo Shungura Formation,Paleobiology,12, 311-23
• Sillen A., 1989,Diagenesis of the inorganic phase of cortical bone, [in:]The Chemistry of Prehistoric Human Bone, T. D. Price (ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 211-29
• Sillen A., 1992,Strontium-calcium ratios (Sr/Ca) of Australopithecus robustus and associated fauna from Swartkrans,J. Hum. Evol.,23, 495-516
• Sillen A., J. C. Sealy, N. J. van der Merwe, 1989,Chemistry and paleodietary research: No more easy answers,Am. Antiq.,54, 504-12
• Sponheimer M., J. A. Lee-Thorp, 2006,Enamel diagenesis at South African Australopith sites: Implications for paleoecological reconstruction with trace elements,Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta,70, 1644-54
• Stephan E., 2000,Oxygen isotope analysis of animal bone phosphate: Method refinement, influence of consolidants, and reconstruction of paleotemperatures for Holocene sites,J. Archaeol. Sci.,27, 523-35
• Stuart-Williams H. L., H. P. Schwarcz, 1997,Oxygen isotopic determination of climatic variation using phosphate from beaver bone, tooth enamel, and dentine, Geochim.Cosmochim. Acta,61, 2539-50
• Surovell, T. A., M. C. Stiner, 2001,Standardizing Infra-red Measures of bone mineral crystallinity: An experimental approach,J. Archaeol. Sci.,28, 633-42
• Szostek K., 2006,Rekonstrukcja ogólnego stanu biologicznego historycznych i przedhistorycznych grup ludzkich na podstawie analiz makro i mikroelementów w materiale odontologicznym, Wyd. PiT, Kraków
• Thackeray J. F., N. J. van der Merwe, J. A. Lee- Thorp, A. Sillen, J. L. Lanham, et al., 1990,Changes in carbon isotope ratios in the late Permian recorded in therapsid tooth apatite,Nature,292, 751-53
• Thompson T. J. U., M. Gauthier, M. Islam, 2009,The application of a new method of Fourier Transform Spectroscopy to the analysis of burned bone,J. Archaeol. Sci.,36, 910-14
• Tieszen L.L, T. Fagre, 1993,Effect of diet quality and composition on the isotopic composition of respiratory CO2, bone collagen, bioapatite and soft tissues, [in:]Prehistoric Human Bone: Archaeology at the Molecular Level, J.B Lambert, G. Grupe (eds.), Springer- Verlag, Berlin, pp. 121-55
• Tutken T., H. Furrer, T. W. Vennemann, 2007,Stable isotope compositions of mammoth teeth from Niederweningen, Switzerland: Implications for the Late Pleistocene climate, environment, and diet,Quat. Int.,164, 139-50
• Ubelaker D. H., M. A. Katzenberg, L. G. Doyon, 1995,Status and diet in precontact highland Ecuador,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,97, 403-11
• Van der Merwe N. J., R. F. Williamson, S. Pfeiffer, S. C. Thomas, K. O. Allegretto, 2003,The Moatfield ossuary: Isotopic dietary analysis of an Iroquoian community, using dental tissue,J. Anthropol. Archaeol.,22, 245-61
• White C., F. J. Longstaffe, K. R. Law, 2004a,Exploring the effects of environment, physiology and diet on oxygen isotope ratios in ancient Nubian bones and teeth,J. Archaeol. Sci.,31, 233-50
• White C. D., M. E. Pohl, H. P. Schwarcz, F. J. Longstaffe, 2001,Isotopic evidence for Maya patterns of deer and dog use at Preclasic Colha,J. Archaeol. Sci.,28, 89-97
• White C. D., M. W. Spence, F. J. Longstaffe, K.R Law, 2004b,Demography and ethnic continuity in the Tlailotlacan enclave of Teotihuacan: The evidence from stable oxygen isotopes,J. Anthropol. Archaeol.,23, 385-403
• White C. D., M. W. Spence, Q. Stuart-Williams, H. P. Schwacz, 1998,Oxygen isotopes and the identification of geographical origins: The Valley of Oaxaca versus the Valley of Mexico,J. Archaeol. Sci.,25, 643-55
• Wright, L. E., H. P. Schwarcz, 1996,Infrared and isotopic evidence for diagenesis of bone apatite at Dos Pilas, Guatemala: Palaeodietary implications,J. Archaeol. Sci.,23, 933-44
• Wright L. E., H. P. Schwarcz, 1998,Stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in human tooth enamel: Identifying breastfeeding and weaning in prehistory,Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.,106, 1-18
• Wright L. E., H. P. Schwarcz, 1999,Correspondence between stable carbon, oxygen and nitrogen isotopes in human tooth enamel and dentine: Infant diets at Kaminaljuyú,J. Archaeol. Sci.,26, 1159-70

Identifiers

DOI

10.2478/v10044-008-0013-5