Developmental Trajectory of Audiovisual Speech Integration in Early Infancy. A Review of Studies Using the McGurk Paradigm

• Authors: Przemysław Tomalski
• Languages of publication: EN

Abstracts

EN

Apart from their remarkable phonological skills young infants prior to their first birthday show ability to match the mouth articulation they see with the speech sounds they hear. They are able to detect the audiovisual conflict of speech and to selectively attend to articulating mouth depending on audiovisual congruency. Early audiovisual speech processing is an important aspect of language development, related not only to phonological knowledge, but also to language production during subsequent years. Th is article reviews recent experimental work delineating the complex developmental trajectory of audiovisual mismatch detection. Th e central issue is the role of age-related changes in visual scanning of audiovisual speech and the corresponding changes in neural signatures of audiovisual speech processing in the second half of the first year of life. Th is phenomenon is discussed in the context of recent theories of perceptual development and existing data on the neural organisation of the infant ‘social brain’.

Keywords

EN

infant; audiovisual speech perception; McGurk effect; eye-tracking; event-related potentials

• Publisher: Sciendo
• Journal: Psychology of Language and Communication
• Year: 2015
• Volume: 19
• Issue: 2
• Pages: 77-100

Dates

published

2015-10-01

online

2015-10-29

Contributors

author

Przemysław Tomalski

• Neurocognitive Development Lab, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Poland

References

• Alsius, A., Navarra, J., Campbell, R., & Soto-Faraco, S. (2005). Audiovisual integration of speech falters under high att ention demands. Current Biology : CB, 15 (9), 839-843.
• Altvater-Mackensen, N. & Grossmann, T. (2015). Learning to Match Auditory and Visual Speech Cues: Social Infl uences on Acquisition of Phonological Categories. Child Development, 86 (2), 362-378.
• Baart, M., Bortfeld, H., & Vroomen, J. (2015). Phonetic matching of auditory and visual speech develops during childhood: Evidence from sine-wave speech. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 129, 157-164.
• Baart, M., Vroomen, J., Shaw, K., & Bortfeld, H. (2013). Degrading phonetic information affects matching of audiovisual speech in adults, but not in infants. Cognition, 130 (1), 31-43.
• Bahrick, L.E., Flom, R., & Lickliter, R. (2002). Intersensory redundancy facilitates discrimination of tempo in 3-month-old infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 41 (4), 352-363.
• Bahrick, L.E., & Lickliter, R. (2014). Learning to Att end Selectively: Th e Dual Role of Intersensory Redundancy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23 (6), 414-420.
• Bahrick, L.E., Lickliter, R., & Flom, R. (2004). Intersensory redundancy guides the development of selective att ention, perception, and cognition in infancy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (3), 99-102.
• Bebko, J.M., Schroeder, J.H., & Weiss, J.A. (2014). Th e McGurk effect in children with autism and Asperger syndrome. Autism Research, 7 (1), 50-59.
• Bernstein, L.E. & Liebenthal, E. (2014). Neural pathways for visual speech perception. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 1-18.
• Best, C.T. & McRoberts, G.W. (2003). Infant perception of non-native consonant contrasts that adults assimilate in diff erent ways. Language and Speech, 46 (2-3), 183-216.
• Best, C.T., McRoberts, G.W., LaFleur, R., & Silver-Isenstadt, J. (1995). Divergent developmental patt erns for infants’ perception of two nonnative consonant contrasts. Infant Behavior and Development, 18 (3), 339-350.
• Blasi, A., Mercure, E., Lloyd-Fox, S., Th omson, A., Brammer, M., Sauter, D., Deeley, Q., Barker, G.J., Renvall, V., Deoni, S., Gasston, D., Williams, S.C.R., Johnson, M.H., Simmons, & A.Murphy, D.G.M. (2011). Early specialization for voice and emotion processing in the infant brain. Current Biology: CB, 21 (14), 1220-1224.
• Bristow, D., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Matt out, J., Soares, C., Gliga, T., Baillet, S., & Mangin, J.-F. (2009). Hearing Faces: How the Infant Brain Matches the Face It Sees with the Speech It Hears. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21 (5), 905-921.
• Brookes, H., Slater, A., Qu inn, P.C., Lewkowicz, D.J., Hayes, R., & Brown, E. (2001). Three-Month-Old Infants Learn Arbitrary Auditory-Visual Pairings Between Voices and Faces. Infant and Child Development, 10 (1-2), 75-82.
• Buchan, J.N., & Munhall, K.G. (2011). Th e infl uence of selective att ention to auditory and visual speech on the integration of audiovisual speech information. Perception, 40 (10), 1164-1182.
• Burnham, D., & Dodd, B. (2004). Auditory-visual speech integration by prelinguistic infants: perception of an emergent consonant in the McGurk eff ect. Developmental Psychobiology, 45 (4), 204-220.
• Campbell, R. (2008). Th e processing of audio-visual speech: empirical and neural bases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 363 (1493), 1001-1010.
• Conboy, B.T., Brooks, R., Meltzoff , A.N., & Kuhl, P.K. (2015). Social interaction in infants’ learning of second-language phonetics: An exploration of brain- behavior relations. Developmental Neuropsychology, 40 (4), 216-229.
• Cooper, R.P. & Aslin, R.N. (1990). Preference for infant-directed speech in the first month aft er birth. Child Development, 61 (5), 1584-1595.
• Coulon, M., Hemimou, C., & Streri, A. (2013). Eff ects of seeing and hearing vowels on neonatal facial imitation. Infancy, 18 (5), 782-796.
• Csibra, G. & Gergely, G. (2009). Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13 (4), 148-153.
• De Haan, M., Pascalis, O., & Johnson, M.H. (2002). Specialization of neural mechanisms underlying face recognition in human infants. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14 (2), 199-209.
• Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Dehaene, S., & Hertz-Pannier, L. (2002). Functional neuroimaging of speech perception in infants. Science, 298 (5600), 2013-2015.
• Desjardins, R.N. & Werker, J.F. (2004). Is the integration of heard and seen speech mandatory for infants? Developmental Psychobiology, 45 (4), 187-203.
• Dodd, B. (1979). Lip reading in infants: att ention to speech presented in- and out-of-synchrony. Cognitive Psychology, 11 (4), 478-484.
• Eimas, P.D. (1975). Auditory and phonetic coding of the cues for speech: Discrimination of the [r-l] distinction by young infants. Perception & Psychophysics, 18 (5), 341-347.
• Farroni, T., Johnson, M.H., Menon, E., Zulian, L., Faraguna, D., & Csibra, G. (2005). Newborns’ preference for face-relevant stimuli: eff ects of contrast polarity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 102 (47), 17245-17250.
• Fernald, A. (1985). Four-month-old infants prefer to listen to motherese. Infant Behavior and Development, 8 (2), 181-195.
• Friston, K. (2010). Th e free-energy principle: a unifi ed brain theory? Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 11 (2), 127-138.
• Friston, K.J. (2005). Models of brain function in neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology, 56 (1), 57-87.
• Garrido, M.I., Kilner, J.M., Stephan, K.E., & Friston, K.J. (2009). Th e mismatch negativity: A review of underlying mechanisms. Clinical Neurophysiology, 120 (3), 453-463.
• Gervain, J. & Werker, J.F. (2013). Prosody cues word order in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Nature Communications, 4 (1490), 1-6.
• Gliga, T. & Csibra, G. (2009). One-year-old infants appreciate the referential nature of deictic gestures and words. Psychological Science, 20 (3), 347-353.
• Goldstein, M.H. & Schwade, J.A. (2008). Social feedback to infants’ babbling facilitates rapid phonological learning. Psychological Science, 19 (5), 515-523.
• Guellai, B., Streri, A., & Yeung, H. H. (2014). Th e development of sensorimotor infl uences in the audiovisual speech domain: some critical questions. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-7.
• Guiraud, J.A., Tomalski, P., Kushnerenko, E., Ribeiro, H., Davies, K., Charman, T., Elsabbagh, M., Johnson, M.H., & the BASIS Team. (2012). Atypical audiovisual speech integration in infants at risk for autism. PloS One, 7 (5), e36428.
• Gurler, D., Doyle, N., Walker, E., Magnott i, J., & Beauchamp, M. (2015). A link between individual diff erences in multisensory speech perception and eye movements. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 77 (4), 1333-1341.
• Hamilton, A., Plunkett , K., & Schafer, G. (2000). Infant vocabulary development assessed with a British Communicative Development Inventory: Lower scores in the UK than the USA. Journal of Child Language, 27 (3), 689-705.
• Harold, M.P. & Barlow, S.M. (2013). Effects of environmental stimulation on infant vocalizations and orofacial dynamics at the onset of canonical babbling. Infant Behavior and Development, 36 (1), 84-93.
• Hockley, N.S. & Polka, L. (1994). A developmental study of audiovisual speech perception using the McGurk paradigm. Th e Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 96 (5), 3309.
• Hosozawa, M., Tanaka, K., Shimizu, T., Nakano, T., & Kitazawa, S. (2012). How children with specifi c language impairment view social situations: An eye tracking study. Pediatrics, 129 (6), e1453-e1460.
• Houston-Price, C., Plunkett , K., & Duff y, H. (2006). Th e use of social and salience cues in early word learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 95 (1), 27-55.
• Howard, I. & Messum, P. (2011). Modeling the development of pronunciation in infant speech acquisition. Motor Control, 15 (1), 85-117.
• Hunnius, S. & Geuze, R.H. (2004). Gaze shift ing in infancy: A longitudinal study using dynamic faces and abstract stimuli. Infant Behavior & Development, 27 (3), 397-416.
• Johnson, M.H. (2001). Functional brain development in humans. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 2 (7), 475-483.
• Johnson, M.H. (2011). Interactive Specialization: A domain-general framework for human functional brain development? Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1 (1), 7-21.
• Johnson, M.H., Grossmann, T., & Cohen Kadosh, K. (2009). Mapping functional brain development: Building a social brain through interactive specialization. Developmental Psychology, 45 (1), 151-159.
• Johnson, M.H., Mareschal, D., & Csibra, G. (2001). Th e functional development and integration of the dorsal and ventral visual pathways: A neurocomputational approach. In C.A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (pp. 339-351). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Johnson, M.H., Senju, A., & Tomalski, P. (2015). Th e two-process theory of face processing: Modifi cations based on two decades of data from infants and adults. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 50, 169-179.
• Jones, W. & Klin, A. (2013). Att ention to eyes is present but in decline in 2-6-monthold infants later diagnosed with autism. Nature, 504 (7480), 427-431.
• Kaufman, J., Mareschal, D., & Johnson, M.H. (2003). Graspability and object processing in infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 26 (4), 516-528.
• Kisilevsky, B.S., Hains, S.M., Brown, C.A., Lee, C.T., Cowperthwaite, B., Stutzman, S.S., Swansburg, M.L., Lee, K., Xie, X., Huang, H., Ye, H.-H., Zhang, K., & Wang, Z. (2009). Fetal sensitivity to properties of maternal speech and language. Infant Behavior and Development, 32 (1), 59-71. Kuhl, P.K. (2007). Is speech learning “gated” by the social brain? Developmental Science, 10 (1), 110-120.
• Kuhl, P.K. (2014). Early language learning and the social brain. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Qu antitative Biology, 79, 211-220.
• Kuhl, P.K., Andruski, J.E., Chistovich, I.A., Chistovich, L.A., Kozhevnikova, E.V, Ryskina, V.L., Stolyarova, E.I., Sundberg, U., & Lacerda, F. (1997). Cross-language analysis of phonetic units in language addressed to infants. Science, 277 (5326), 684-686.
• Kuhl, P.K. & Meltzoff , A.N. (1982). Th e bimodal perception of speech in infancy. Science, 218 (4577), 1138-1141.
• Kuhl, P.K. & Meltzoff , A.N. (1984). Th e intermodal representation of speech in infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 7 (3), 361-381.
• Kuhl, P.K., Stevens, E., Hayashi, A., Deguchi, T., Kiritani, S., & Iverson, P. (2006). Infants show a facilitation effect for native language phonetic perception between 6 and 12 months. Developmental Science, 9 (2), F13-F21.
• Kuhl, P.K., Tsao, F.-M., & Liu, H.-M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: Eff ects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 100 (15), 9096-9101.
• Kushnerenko, E., Teinonen, T., Volein, A., & Csibra, G. (2008). Electrophysiological evidence of illusory audiovisual speech percept in human infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America, 105 (32), 11442-11445.
• Kushnerenko, E., Tomalski, P., Ballieux, H., Pott on, A., Birtles, D., Frostick, C., & Moore, D.G. (2013). Brain responses and looking behavior during audiovisual speech integration in infants predict auditory speech comprehension in the second year of life. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 (432), 1-10.
• Kushnerenko, E., Tomalski, P., Ballieux, H., Ribeiro, H., Pott on, A., Axelsson, E.L., Murphy, E., Moore, D.G. (2013). Brain responses to audiovisual speech mismatch in infants are associated with individual diff erences in looking behaviour. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 38 (9), 3363-3369.
• Kushnerenko, E., Winkler, I., Horvath, J., Naatanen, R., Pavlov, I., Fellman, V., & Huotilainen, M. (2007). Processing acoustic change and novelty in newborn infants. European Journal of Neuroscience, 26 (1), 265-274.
• Kushnerenko, E.V., Van den Bergh, B.R.H., & Winkler, I. (2013). Separating acoustic deviance from novelty during the fi rst year of life: A review of event-related potential evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 4 (595), 1-16.
• Lewkowicz, D.J. (2000). Th e development of intersensory temporal perception: An epigenetic systems/limitations view. Psychological Bulletin, 126 (2), 281-308.
• Lewkowicz, D.J. (2003). Learning and discrimination of audiovisual events in human infants: Th e hierarchical relation between intersensory temporal synchrony and rhythmic pattern cues. Developmental Psychology, 39 (5), 795-804.
• Lewkowicz, D.J. (2010). Infant perception of audio-visual speech synchrony. Developmental Psychology, 46 (1), 66-77. Lewkowicz, D.J. & Hansen-Tift , A.M. (2012). Infants deploy selective attention to the mouth of a talking face when learning speech. Proceedings of the National -Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109 (5), 1431-1436.
• Lewkowicz, D.J., Minar, N.J., Tift , A.H., & Brandon, M. (2015). Perception of the multisensory coherence of fl uent audiovisual speech in infancy: Its emergence and the role of experience. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 130, 147-162.
• Lloyd-Fox, S., Blasi, A., Mercure, E., Elwell, C.E., & Johnson, M.H. (2012). The emergence of cerebral specialization for the human voice over the fi rst months of life. Social Neuroscience, 7 (3), 317-330.
• MacKain, K., Studdert-Kennedy, M., Spieker, S., & Stern, D. (1983). Infant intermodal speech perception is a left -hemisphere function. Science, 219 (4590), 1347-1349.
• Magnée, M.J.C.M., de Gelder, B., van Engeland, H., & Kemner, C. (2008). Audiovisual speech integration in pervasive developmental disorder: Evidence from event-related potentials. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49 (9), 995-1000.
• Mareschal, D. & Johnson, M.H. (2003). Th e “what” and “where” of object representations in infancy. Cognition, 88 (3), 259-276.
• Massaro, D.W. (1984). Children’s perception of visual and auditory speech. Child Development, 55 (5), 1777-1786.
• Massaro, D.W., Cohen, M.M., & Smeele, P.M.T. (1996). Perception of asynchronous and confl icting visual and auditory speech. Th e Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 100 (3), 1777-1786.
• Massaro, D.W., Th ompson, L.A., Barron, B., & Laren, E. (1986). Developmental changes in visual and auditory contributions to speech perception. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41 (1), 93-113.
• Maye, J., Weiss, D.J., & Aslin, R.N. (2008). Statistical phonetic learning in infants: Facilitation and feature generalization. Developmental Science, 11 (1), 122-134.
• Maye, J., Werker, J.F., & Gerken, L. (2002). Infant sensitivity to distributional information can aff ect phonetic discrimination. Cognition, 82 (3), B101-B111.
• McGurk, H. & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264 (5588), 746-748.
• Megnin, O., Flitt on, A., Jones, C.R.G., de Haan, M., Baldeweg, T., & Charman, T. (2012). Audiovisual speech integration in autism spectrum disorders: ERP evidence for atypicalities in lexical-semantic processing. Autism Research, 5 (1), 39-48.
• Meronen, A., Tiippana, K., Westerholm, J., & Ahonen, T. (2013). Audiovisual speech perception in children with developmental language disorder in degraded listening conditions. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56 (1), 211-221. Mott onen, R., Krause, C.M., Tiippana, K., & Sams, M. (2002). Processing of changes in visual speech in the human auditory cortex. Cognitive Brain Research, 13 (3), 417-425.
• Nash, M. & Donaldson, M.L. (2005). Word learning in children with vocabulary deficits. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48 (2), 439-458.
• Norrix, L.W., Plante, E., & Vance, R. (2006). Auditory-visual speech integration by adults with and without language-learning disabilities. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39 (1), 22-36.
• Norrix, L.W., Plante, E., Vance, R., & Boliek, C.A. (2007). Auditory-visual integration for speech by children with and without specifi c language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50 (6), 1639-1651.
• Parise, E., Handl, A., Palumbo, L., & Friederici, A.D. (2011). Infl uence of eye gaze on spoken word processing: an ERP study with infants. Child Development, 82 (3), 842-853.
• Partanen, E., Kujala, T., Naatanen, R., Liitola, A., Sambeth, A., & Huotilainen, M. (2013). Learning-induced neural plasticity of speech processing before birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110 (37), 15145-15150.
• Patterson, M.L. & Werker, J.F. (1999). Matching phonetic information in lips and voice is robust in 4.5-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 22 (2), 237-247.
• Patterson, M.L. & Werker, J.F. (2002). Infants’ ability to match dynamic phonetic and gender information in the face and voice. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 81 (1), 93-115.
• Patterson, M.L. & Werker, J.F. (2003). Two-month-old infants match phonetic information in lips and voice. Developmental Science, 6 (2), 191-196.
• Pegg, J.E. & Werker, J.F. (1997). Adult and infant perception of two English phones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 102 (6), 3742-3753.
• Polka, L. & Werker, J.F. (1994). Developmental changes in perception of nonnative vowel contrasts. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 20 (2), 421-435.
• Pons, F., Andreu, L., Sanz-Torrent, M., Buil-Legaz, L., & Lewkowicz, D.J. (2013). Perception of audio-visual speech synchrony in Spanish-speaking children with and without specifi c language impairment. Journal of Child Language, 40 (3), 687-700.
• Pons, F., Bosch, L., & Lewkowicz, D.J. (2015). Bilingualism modulates infants’ selective att ention to the mouth of a talking face. Psychological Science, 26 (4), 490-498.
• Pons, F., Lewkowicz, D.J., Soto-Faraco, S., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2009). Narrowing of intersensory speech perception in infancy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106 (26), 10598-10602.
• Ramírez-Esparza, N., García-Sierra, A., & Kuhl, P.K. (2014). Look who’s talking: Speech style and social context in language input to infants are linked to concurrent and future speech development. Developmental Science, 17 (6), 880-891.
• Ramsdell-Hudock, H.L. (2014). Caregiver infl uence on looking behavior and brain responses in prelinguistic development. Frontiers in Psychology, 5 (297), 1-2.
• Rivera-Gaxiola, M., Silva-Pereyra, J., & Kuhl, P.K. (2005). Brain potentials to native and non-native speech contrasts in 7- and 11-month-old American infants. Developmental Science, 8 (2), 162-172.
• Rosenblum, L.D. & Saldaña, H.M. (1996). An audiovisual test of kinematic primitives for visual speech perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22 (2), 318-331.
• Rosenblum, L.D., Schmuckler, M.A, & Johnson, J.A. (1997). Th e McGurk eff ect in infants. Percept Psychophys, 59 (3), 347-357.
• Ross, L.A., Molholm, S., Blanco, D., Gomez-Ramirez, M., Saint-Amour, D., & Foxe, J.J. (2011). Th e development of multisensory speech perception continues into the late childhood years. European Journal of Neuroscience, 33 (12), 2329-2337.
• Ross, L.A., Saint-Amour, D., Leavitt , V.M., Javitt , D.C., & Foxe, J.J. (2007). Do you see what I am saying? Exploring visual enhancement of speech comprehension in noisy environments. Cerebral Cortex, 17 (5), 1147-1153.
• Schwartz, J.-L. (2010). A reanalysis of McGurk data suggests that audiovisual fusion in speech perception is subject-dependent. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 127 (3), 1584-1594.
• Sekiyama, K. & Burnham, D. (2008). Impact of language on development of auditory-visual speech perception. Developmental Science, 11 (2), 306-320.
• Soto-Faraco, S., Navarra, J., & Alsius, A. (2004). Assessing automaticity in audiovisual speech integration: Evidence from the speeded classifi cation task. Cognition, 92 (3), B13-B23.
• Steele, S.C. & Watkins, R.V. (2010). Learning word meanings during reading by children with language learning disability and typically-developing peers. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24 (7), 520-539.
• Stevenson, R.A., Siemann, J.K., Woynaroski, T.G., Schneider, B.C., Eberly, H.E., Camarata, S.M., & Wallace, M.T. (2014). Brief report: Arrested development of audiovisual speech perception in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44 (6), 1470-1477.
• Streri, A., Hevia, M., Izard, V., & Coubart, A. (2013). What do We Know about Neonatal Cognition? Behavioral Sciences, 3 (1), 154-169.
• Sumby, W.H. & Pollack, I. (1954). Visual contribution to speech intelligibility in noise. Th e Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 26 (2), 212-215. Teinonen, T., Aslin, R.N., Alku, P., & Csibra, G. (2008). Visual speech contributes to phonetic learning in 6-month-old infants. Cognition, 108 (3), 850-855.
• Tenenbaum, E.J., Shah, R.J., Sobel, D.M., Malle, B.F., & Morgan, J.L. (2013). Increased focus on the mouth among infants in the fi rst year of life: A longitudinal eye-tracking study. Infancy, 18 (4), 534-553.
• Tenenbaum, E.J., Sobel, D.M., Sheinkopf, S.J., Malle, B.F., & Morgan, J.L. (2014). Attention to the mouth and gaze following in infancy predict language development. Journal of Child Language, 18, 1-18.
• Tiippana, K., Andersen, T.S., & Sams, M. (2004, May). Visual att ention modulates audiovisual speech perception. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16 (3), 457-472.
• Tomalski, P., Ribeiro, H., Ballieux, H., Axelsson, E.L., Murphy, E., Moore, D.G., & Kushnerenko, E. (2013). Exploring early developmental changes in face scanning patt erns during the perception of audiovisual mismatch of speech cues. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10 (5), 611-624.
• Tomasello, M. & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Dev Sci, 10 (1), 121-125.
• Tsao, F.M., Liu, H.M., & Kuhl, P.K. (2006). Perception of native and non-native aff ricate-fricative contrasts: cross-language tests on adults and infants. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 120 (4), 2285-2294.
• Watson, T.L., Robbins, R.A., & Best, C.T. (2014). Infant perceptual development for faces and spoken words: An integrated approach. Developmental Psychobiology, 56 (7), 1454-1481.
• Werker, J.F., & Hensch, T.K. (2015). Critical periods in speech perception: New directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 66 (1), 173-196.
• Werker, J.F., & Tees, R. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during thefi rst year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 49-63.
• Westermann, G., Mareschal, D., Johnson, M.H., Sirois, S., Spratling, M.W., & Th omas, M.S.C. (2007). Neuroconstructivism. Developmental Science, 10 (1), 75-83.
• Wheeler, A., Anzures, G., Qu inn, P. C., Pascalis, O., Omrin, D. S., & Lee, K. (2011). Caucasian infants scan own- and other-race faces diff erently. PloS One, 6 (4), e18621.
• Wilcox, T., Stubbs, J.A., Wheeler, L., & Alexander, G.M. (2013). Infants’ scanning of dynamic faces during the fi rst year. Infant Behavior & Development, 36 (4), 513-516.
• Zens, N.K., Gillon, G.T., & Moran, C. (2009). Eff ects of phonological awareness and semantic intervention on word-learning in children with SLI. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11 (6), 509-524.
• Zimmerman, I.L., Steiner, V.G., & Evatt Pond, R. (2002). Preschool language scales-IV. Pearson (htt p://www.pearsonclinical.co.uk).

Identifiers

DOI

10.1515/plc-2015-0006