The Lion Against the Eagle: A Critical Appraisal of the Anti-Imperial Reading of Paul

• Authors: Marcin Kowalski

Abstracts

PL

Artykuł stanowi syntetyczną analizę krytyki imperialnej w listach św. Pawła. Autor rozpoczyna od ukazania wszechobecności i charakteru kultu imperialnego w czasach apostoła. Następnie naświetla miejsca w listach św. Pawła, które zazwyczaj wiąże się z antyimperialną retoryką Pawła. W kolejnej części poddaje krytyce argumenty wysuwane za obecnością skryptu antyimperialnego we wskazanych listach. W konkluzjach autor krytycznie odnosi się do metodologii i przesłanek krytyki imperialnej, która zasadniczo lekceważy kontekst argumentacyjny Pawła, odwołuje się do problematycznego „ukrytego zapisu” i bywa mocno zideologizowana. Według autora apostoł nie walczy z Imperium, akceptując jego instytucje i porządek społeczny oraz próbując je zmieniać od środka. Choć Paweł świadomie nie operuje skryptem anty-imperialnym, Dobra Nowina i zakładane przez niego wspólnoty posiadają jednak anty-imperialny potencjał. To sprawia, że autor ostatecznie opowiada się za ostrożnym zastosowaniem krytyki imperialnej, która może służyć lepszemu zrozumieniu tła kulturowego Nowego Testamentu i przesłania listów św. Pawła.

EN

The article presents a synthetic analysis of empire criticism in Pauline letters, beginning with the omnipresence and character of imperial cult in Paul’s time. Subsequently, the author highlights the places in Pauline letters that are usually associated with anti-imperial rhetoric. The following part of the article critically appraises the arguments for the presence of an anti-imperial script in Paul’s letters. The conclusions critically assess the methodology and premises of empire criticism, which essentially ignores Paul’s argumentative context, refers to the problematic “hidden transcript,” and can be strongly informed by contemporary ideologies. According to the author, Paul does not fight with the Empire, accepting its institutions and social order and trying to change them from within. Although the apostle does not consciously use the anti-imperial script, the Good News he preached and the communities he founded possess an anti-imperial potential. In light of this, the article ultimately advocates a careful application of empire criticism to Paul, which can serve a better understanding of the New Testament background and the message of Paul.

Keywords

PL

listy Pawła; krytyka imperialna; kult imperialny; antyimperialna retoryka Pawła; ukryty zapis

EN

Pauline letters; empire criticism; imperial cult; anti-imperial rhetoric of Paul; hidden transcript

• Publisher: Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie
• Journal: Collectanea Theologica
• Year: 2023
• Volume: 93
• Issue: 2
• Pages: 57-103

Dates

published

2023

Contributors

author

Marcin Kowalski

• Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II

• https://orcid.org/0000000287326868

References

• Agosto, E., “Patronage and Commendation, Imperial and Anti-Imperial,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 103–123.
• Ando, C., Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press 2000).
• Barclay, J.M.G., Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 275; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2011).
• Batten, A., “Brokerage. Jesus as Social Entrepreneur,” Understanding the Social World of the New Testament (ed. D. Neufeld – R.E. DeMaris; London – New York, NY: Routledge 2010) 167–177.
• Beker, J.C., Paul’s Apocalyptic Gospel: The Coming Triumph of God (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress 1982).
• Bevere, A.R., “Colossians and the Rhetoric of Empire: A New Battle Zone,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 184–196.
• Bird, M.F., “‘One Who Will Arise to Rule Over the Nations’: Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the Roman Empire,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 147–166.
• Bird, M.F., An Anomalous Jew: Paul among Jews, Greeks, and Romans (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2016).
• Brunt, P.A., “Laus Imperii,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 25–35.
• Bryan, C., Render to Caesar: Jesus, the Early Church, and the Roman Superpower (New York, NY – Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005).
• Burk, D., “Is Paul’s Gospel Counterimperial? Evaluating the Prospects of the ‘Fresh Perspective’ for Evangelical Theology,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 51/2 (2008) 309–337.
• Burrell, B., Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors (Cincinnati Classical Studies 9; Leiden – Boston, MA: Brill 2004).
• Carter, W., Matthew and Empire: Initial Explorations (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2001).
• Carter, W., John and Empire: Initial Explorations (New York, NY – London: T&T Clark 2008).
• Carter, W., “Paul and the Roman Empire. Recent Perspectives,” Paul Unbound: Other Perspectives on the Apostle (ed. M.D. Given; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson 2010) 7–26.
• Chow, J.K., “Patronage in Roman Corinth,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 104–125.
• Cohick, L.H., “Philippians and Empire. Paul’s Engagement with Imperialism and the Imperial Cult,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 167–183.
• Deissmann, G.A., Bible Studies: Contributions Chiefly from Papyri and Inscriptions to the History of the Language, the Literature and the Religion of Hellenistic Judaism and Primitive Christianity (Edinburgh: T&T Clark 1901).
• Deissmann, G.A., Light from the Ancient East: The New Testament Illustrated by Recently Discovered Texts of the Graeco-Roman World (London: Hodder & Stoughton 1910).
• Diehl, J.A., “Empire and Epistles. Anti-Roman Rhetoric in the New Testament Epistles,” Currents in Biblical Research 10/2 (2012) 217–263.
• Diehl, J.A., “Anti-Imperial Rhetoric in the New Testament,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 39–82.
• Dittenberger, W., Orientis graeci inscriptiones selectae: Supplementum sylloges inscriptionum graecarum. Volumen alterum (Lipsiae: Hirzel 1905) (= OGIS).
• Donfried, K.P. (ed.), The Romans Debate (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson 1991).
• Donfried, K.P., “The Imperial Cults of Thessalonica and Political Conflict in I Thessalonians,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 215–223.
• Dunn, J.D.G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans 2011).
• Durand, J.-L. – Scheid, J., “‘Rites’ et ‘religion’: Remarques sur certains préjugés des historiens de la religion des Grecs et des Romains,” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 39/85 (1994) 23–43.
• Ehrenberg, V. – Jones, A.M., Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1949).
• Elliott, N., Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 1994).
• Elliott, N., “Romans 13:1–7 in the Context of Imperial Propaganda,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 184–204.
• Elliott, N., “The Anti-Imperial Message of the Cross,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 167–183.
• Elliott, N., “Paul and The Politics of Empire: Problems and Prospects,” Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000) 17–39.
• Elliott, N., “The Apostle Paul’s Self-Presentation as Anti-Imperial Performance,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 67–88.
• Elliott, N., The Arrogance of Nations: Reading Romans in the Shadow of Empire (Paul in Critical Contexts; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2008).
• Elliott, N., “The Letter to the Romans,” A Postcolonial Commentary on the New Testament Writings (ed. F.F. Segovia – R.S. Sugirtharajah; The Bible and Postcolonialism 13; London: T&T Clark 2009) 194–219.
• Esterline, D. – Lee, J. – Rhoads, D.M., Luke–Acts and Empire. Essays in Honor of Robert L. Brawley (Princeton Theological Monograph Series 151; Eugene, OR: Pickwick 2011).
• Evans, C.A., “Mark’s Incipit and the Priene Calendar Inscription: From Jewish Gospel to Greco-Roman Gospel,” Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism 1 (2000) 67–81.
• Fantin, J.D., The Lord of the Entire World. Lord Jesus, a Challenge to Lord Caesar? (New Testament Monographs 31; Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press 2011).
• Fitzmyer, J.A., Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (Anchor Bible 33; New York, NY: Doubleday 1993).
• Friesen, S.J., Twice Neokoros: Ephesus, Asia and the Cult of the Flavian Imperial Family (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 116; Leiden – New York, NY – Köln: Brill 1993).
• Friesen, S.J., Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation in the Ruins (Oxford – New York, NY: Oxford University Press 2001).
• Friesen, S.J., “Paul and Economics: The Jerusalem Collection as an Alternative to Patronage,” Paul Unbound: Other Perspectives on the Apostle (ed. M.D. Given; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson 2010) 27–54.
• Garnsey, P. – Saller, R.P., “Patronal Power Relations,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 96–103.
• Georgi, D., “God Turned Upside Down,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 148–157.
• Gordon, R., “The Veil of Power,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 126–137.
• Gorman, M.J., Apostle of the Crucified Lord: A Theological Introduction to Paul & His Letters (2nd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2017).
• Gradel, I., Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford Classical Monographs; Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002).
• Harland, P.A., “Honours and Worship. Emperors, Imperial Cults and Associations at Ephesus (First to Third Centuries C.E.),” Studies in Religion 25/3 (1996) 319–334.
• Harrill, J.A., “Paul and Empire. Studying Roman Identity after the Cultural Turn,” Early Christianity 2/3 (2011) 281–311.
• Harrison, J.R., “Paul and the Imperial Gospel at Thessaloniki,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 25/1 (2002) 71–96.
• Harrison, J.R., Paul and the Imperial Authorities at Thessalonica and Rome: A Study in the Conflict of Ideology (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 273; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2011).
• Heen, E.M., “Phil 2:6–11 and Resistance to Local Timocratic Rule: Isa theō and the Cult of the Emperor in the East,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 125–153.
• Heilig, C., Hidden Criticism? The Methodology and Plausibility of the Search for a Counter-Imperial Subtext in Paul (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 392; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2015).
• Heilig, C., The Apostle and the Empire: Paul’s Implicit and Explicit Criticism of Rome (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2022).
• Hengel, M., Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross (London: SCM Press 1977).
• Horsley, R.A., “I Corinthians: A Case Study of Paul’s Assembly as an Alternative Society,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 242–252.
• Horsley, R.A., “Patronage, Priesthoods, and Power: Introduction,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 88–95.
• Horsley, R.A. (ed.), Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997).
• Horsley, R.A., “The Gospel of Imperial Salvation: Introduction,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 10–24.
• Horsley, R.A. (ed.), Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000).
• Horsley, R.A., “Rhetoric and Empire and 1 Corinthians,” Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000) 72–102.
• Horsley, R.A. (ed.), Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004).
• Horsley, R.A., “The First and Second Letters to the Corinthians,” A Postcolonial Commentary on the New Testament Writings (ed. F.F. Segovia – R.S. Sugirtharajah; The Bible and Postcolonialism 13; London: T&T Clark 2009) 220–245.
• Hurtado, L.W., Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI – Cambridge: Eerdmans 2005).
• Huttunen, N., “Imagination Made Real: Paul between Political Realism and Eschatological Hope,” Early Christians Adapting to the Roman Empire (ed. N. Huttunen; Leiden: Brill 2020) 99–137.
• Jervis, L.A., The Purpose of Romans: A Comparative Letter Structure Investigation (Journal for the Study of the New Testament. Supplement 55; Sheffield: JSOT Press 1991).
• Jewett, R., “Exegetical Support from Romans and Other Letters,” Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000) 58–71.
• Jewett, R., “The Corruption and Redemption of Creation: Reading Rom 8:18–23 within the Imperial Context,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 25–46.
• Jewett, R. – Kotansky, R.D., Romans: A Commentary on the Book of Romans (Hermeneia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2007).
• Kim, S., Christ and Caesar: The Gospel and the Roman Empire in the Writings of Paul and Luke (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2008).
• Klostergaard Petersen, A., “Imperial Politics in Paul: Scholarly Phantom or Actual Textual Phenomenon?” People under Power: Early Jewish and Christian Responses to the Roman Empire (ed. O. Lehtipuu – M. Labahn; Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press 2015) 101–127.
• Koester, H., “Imperial Ideology and Paul’s Eschatology in I Thessalonians,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 158–166.
• Kowalski, M., Transforming Boasting of Self into Boasting in the Lord: The Development of the Pauline Periautologia in 2 Cor 10–13 (Studies in Judaism; Lanham, MD: University Press of America 2013).
• Kowalski, M., “God the Benefactor and His Human Clients in Rom. 5–8,” The Biblical Annals 8/1 (2018) 47–69.
• Kowalski, M., “The Brokerage of the Spirit in Rom 8,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 80/4 (2018) 636–654.
• Krauter, S., Studien zu Röm 13,1–7: Paulus und der politische Diskurs der neronischen Zeit (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 243; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2009).
• Lafaye, G., Inscriptiones graecae ad res romanas pertinentes. Tomus quartus (Paris: Leroux 1927).
• Lattke, M., “apantesis,” Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, I, 115.
• Leander, H., Discourses of Empire: The Gospel of Mark from a Postcolonial Perspective (SemeiaSt 71; Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature 2013).
• Linder, M. – Scheid, J., “Quand croire c’est faire: Le problème de la croyance dans la Rome ancienne,” Archives de sciences sociales des religions 38/81 (1993) 47–61.
• MacMullen, R., Roman Social Relations, 50 B.C. to A.D. 284 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1974).
• McKnight, S. – Modica, J.B., “Introduction,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 16–21.
• McKnight, S. – Modica, J.B. (ed.), Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013).
• Meeks, W.A., The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1983).
• Metzger, B.M., “The Fourth Book of Ezra with the Four Additional Chapters: A New Translation and Introduction,” The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (ed. J.H. Charlesworth; London: Yale University Press 1983) I, 517–559.
• Miller, C.F., “The Imperial Cult in the Pauline Cities of Asia Minor and Greece,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 72/2 (2010) 314–332.
• Moore, S.D., Empire and Apocalypse: Postcolonialism and the New Testament (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix 2006).
• Morris, L., The Epistle to the Romans (The Pillar New Testament Commentary; Leicester – Grand Rapids, MI: Apollos – Eerdmans 1988).
• Murphy-O’Connor, J., Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford – New York, NY: Oxford University Press 1997).
• Musurillo, H.A., The Acts of the Christian Martyrs (Oxford Early Christian Texts; Oxford: Clarendon Press 1972).
• Naylor, M., “The Roman Imperial Cult and Revelation,” CurBR 8/2 (2010) 207–239.
• Nock, A.D., Conversion: The Old and the New in Religion from Alexander the Great to Augustine of Hippo (Brown Classics in Judaica; Lanham, MD: University Press of America 1988).
• Nystrom, D., “We Have No King but Caesar: Roman Imperial Ideology and the Imperial Cult,” Jesus Is Lord, Caesar Is Not: Evaluating Empire in New Testament Studies (ed. S. McKnight – J.B. Modica; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2013) 23–38.
• Oakes, P., Philippians: From People to Letter (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 110; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2001).
• Oakes, P., “Re-Mapping the Universe: Paul and the Emperor in 1 Thessalonians and Philippians,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 27/3 (2005) 301–322.
• Patterson, J.R., “The Emperor and the Cities of Italy,” Bread and Circuses: Euergetism and Municipal Patronage in Roman Italy (ed. K. Lomas – T. Cornell; Routledge Classical Monographs; London – New York, NY: Routledge 2003) 89–104.
• Peterson, E., “apantesis,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, I, 380.
• Pitre, B. – Barber, M.P. – Kincaid, J.A., Paul, a New Covenant Jew: Rethinking Pauline Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2019).
• Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture: The Word That Comes from God and Speaks of God for the Salvation of the World (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press 2014).
• Porter, S.E., “Paul Confronts Caesar with the Good News,” Empire in the New Testament (ed. S.E. Porter – C. Long Westfall; McMaster New Testament Studies 10; Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications 2011) 164–196.
• Porter, S.E., The Apostle Paul: His Life, Thought, and Letters (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2016).
• Porter, S.E. – Long Westfall, C. (ed.), Empire in the New Testament (McMaster New Testament Studies 10; Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications 2011).
• Portier-Young, A., Apocalypse Against Empire: Theologies of Resistance in Early Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans 2011).
• Price, S.R.F., Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1984a).
• Price, S.R.F., “Rituals and Power,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997b) 47–71.
• Punt, J., “Paul’s Jewish Identity in the Roman World: Beyond the Conflict Model,” Paul the Jew: Rereading the Apostle as a Figure of Second Temple Judaism (ed. G. Boccaccini – C.A. Segovia; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2016) 245–271.
• Punt, J., “Paul the Jew, Power of Evil and Rome,” Scriptura 117/1 (2018) 1–17.
• Radl, W., “parousia,” Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, III, 43–44.
• Ramsaran, R.A., “Resisting Imperial Domination and Influence: Apocalyptic Rhetoric in 1 Corinthians,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 89–101.
• Riches, J.K. – Sim, D.C., The Gospel of Matthew in Its Roman Imperial Context (Journal for the Study of the New Testament. Supplement 276; London – New York, NY: T&T Clark 2005).
• Rieger, J., Christ & Empire: From Paul to Postcolonial Times (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress 2007).
• Robbins, V.K., The Tapestry of Early Christian Discourse: Rhetoric, Society, and Ideology (London: Routledge 1996).
• Robinson, L., “Hidden Transcripts?: The Supposedly Self-Censoring Paul and Rome as Surveillance State in Modern Pauline Scholarship,” NTS 67/1 (2021) 55–72.
• Rock, I.E., “Another Reason for Romans-A Pastoral Response to Augustan Imperial Theology: Paul’s Use of the Song of Moses in Romans 9–11 and 14–15,” Reading Paul in Context: Explorations in Identity Formation. Essays in Honour of William S. Campbell (ed. K. Ehrensperger – J.B. Tucker; T&T Clark Library of Biblical Studies 428; London – New York, NY: T&T Clark 2010) 74–89.
• Saller, R.P., Personal Patronage under the Early Empire (Cambridge – New York, NY: Cambridge University Press 1982).
• Schreiner, T.R., Romans (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament 6; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker 1998).
• Segovia, F.F. – Sugirtharajah, R.S. (ed.), A Postcolonial Commentary on the New Testament Writings (The Bible and Postcolonialism 13; London: T&T Clark 2009).
• Seo, P.S., Luke’s Jesus in the Roman Empire and the Emperor in the Gospel of Luke (Cambridge: James Clarke 2015).
• Smith, A., “‘Unmasking the Powers’: Toward a Postcolonial Analysis of 1 Thessalonians,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 47–66.
• Stegemann, E., “Coexistence and Transformation: Reading the Politics of Identity in Romans in an Imperial Context,” Reading Paul in Context: Explorations in Identity Formation. Essays in Honour of William S. Campbell (ed. K. Ehrensperger – J.B. Tucker; T&T Clark Library of Biblical Studies 428; London – New York, NY: T&T Clark 2010) 2–23.
• Taylor, L.R., The Divinity of the Roman Emperor (Philological Monographs 1; Middletown, CT: American Philological Association 1931).
• Thompson, L.L., The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire (New York, NY: Oxford University Press 1990).
• Thorsteinsson, R.M., Roman Christianity and Roman Stoicism: A Comparative Study of Ancient Morality (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2010).
• Veyne, P., Bread and Circuses: Historical Sociology and Political Pluralism (London: A. Lane, the Penguin Press 1990).
• Wallace, D.R., The Gospel of God: Romans as Paul’s Aeneid (Eugene, OR: Pickwick 2008).
• Walsh, B.J. – Keesmaat, S.C., Colossians Remixed: Subverting the Empire (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity 2004).
• Wan, S., “Collection for the Saints as Anticolonial Act,” Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000) 191–215.
• Wedderburn, A.J.M., The Reasons for Romans (T&T Clark Academic Paperbacks; London – New York, NY: T&T Clark 2004).
• Weima, J.A.D., “‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thess 5.3): Prophetic Warning or Political Propaganda?” NTS 58/3 (2012) 331–359.
• West, A.B., Latin Inscriptions 1896–1926 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1931).
• White, J., “Anti-Imperial Subtexts in Paul: An Attempt at Building a Firmer Foundation,” Bib 90/3 (2009) 305–333.
• White, J.R., “‘Peace and Security’ (1 Thessalonians 5.3): Is It Really a Roman Slogan?” NTS 59/3 (2013) 382–395.
• Wood, S.J., The Alter-Imperial Paradigm: Empire Studies & the Book of Revelation (BibInt 140; Leiden – Boston, MA: Brill 2016).
• Wright, N.T., “Paul’s Gospel and Caesar’s Empire,” Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2000) 160–183.
• Wright, N.T., Paul: Fresh Perspectives (London: SPCK 2005).
• Wright, N.T., Paul and the Faithfulness of God (Christian Origins and the Question of God 4; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2013).
• Wright, N.T., Pauline Perspectives: Essays on Paul, 1978–2013 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2013).
• Wright, N.T., Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress 2015).
• Wright Knust, J., “Paul and the Politics of Virtue and Vice,” Paul and the Roman Imperial Order (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 2004) 155–173.
• Yamazaki-Ransom, K., The Roman Empire in Luke’s narrative (T&T Clark Library of Biblical Studies 404; London: T&T Clark 2010).
• Zanker, P., The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press 1988).
• Zanker, P., “The Power of Images,” Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society (ed. R.A. Horsley; Harrisburg, PA: Trinity 1997) 72–86.

Identifiers

DOI

10.21697/ct.2023.93.2.03

Biblioteka Nauki

28394720