Selected Factors Determining the Adaptability of the Gdańsk School Under Sails Participants and Their Temperamental Correlates

• Authors: Miłosz Wawrzyniec Romaniuk , Jakub Niewiarowski

Abstracts

EN

Research objectives and problems: The purpose of the study was to test the impact of a high seas cruise on a traditional sailing ship, during which sail training is implemented, on selected characteristics of the participants. It was thought that significant, positive changes would emerge in terms of decision-making, perception of the future, resistance to change, and proactivity – and that these changes would be related to temperament. Research methods: Using the General Decision Making Style instrument, the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale, the Resistance to Change Scale, and the Proactivity Scale, a questionnaire with repeated measurement was administered to two groups of adolescents taking part in a sea cruise (Group 1: 14-day cruise, 11 boys, 8 girls, M age=17.1; Group 2: 7-day cruise, 13 boys, 7 girls, M age = 21.9). Measurements were taken on the first and last day of the cruise and one month after the cruise. Multilevel modeling was used to examine how temperament moderates changes in decision-making style, consideration of future consequences, resistance to change, and level of proactivity. Structure of the article: The text provides information on sail training, including the historical context, previous research, and impact on youths’ development. The role of temperament in shaping behavior and its relevance to sail training are introduced. The theoretical constructs investigated, and the tools used in the research are described. The research objectives are stated and the sample and procedure are explained. The results are presented and discussed. Limitations and conclusions are indicated. Research findings and their impact: Emotional reactivity significantly moderated the increase in dependent and avoidant decision-making styles and short-term focus, while it decreased cognitive rigidity and proactivity. Activity counteracted growth in avoidant decision-making style, reduced resistance to change, routine seeking, and emotional reactivity to change, lowered short-term focus, and supported growth in proactivity. Resilience counteracted the positive development of proactivity. Conclusions and recommendations: Temperament traits can be mediators of change in terms of the constructs discussed herein. The results allow us to look at sail training from a new perspective, though further research on a regular School Under Sails and aboard other sailing ships is needed to formulate indisputable conclusions.

Keywords

EN

Gdańsk School Under Sails; adaptability; temperament; decision-making; consideration of future consequences; resistance to change; proactivity

• Publisher: Akademia Ignatianum w Krakowie
• Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of School Education
• Year: 2024
• Volume: 13
• Issue: 1 (25)
• Pages: 317-347

Dates

published

2024

Contributors

author

Miłosz Wawrzyniec Romaniuk

• The Maria Grzegorzewska University, Warsaw

• https://orcid.org/0000000210098940

author

Jakub Niewiarowski

• University of Social Sciences and Humanities (SWPS University), Warsaw

• https://orcid.org/0000000310667987

References

• Adams, J., & Nettle, D. (2009). Time perspective, personality and smoking, body-mass, and physical activity: An empirical study. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 83–105. DOI: 10.1348/135910708X299664
• Allison, P., McCulloch, K., McLaughlin, P., Edwards, V., & Tett, L. (2007). The characteristics and value of the sail training experience. The University of Edinburgh.
• Andrew, S. (1998). Self-efficacy as a predictor of academic performance in science. Journal of advanced nursing, 27(3), 596–603.
• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy. Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
• Bandura, A. (2007). Teoria społecznego uczenia się [Social learning theory]. Warsaw: PWN.
• Bar, M. (2009). The proactive brain: Memory for predictions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 1235–1243. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0310
• Bartone, P. T., Eid, J., & Hystad, S. W. (2016). Training hardiness for stress resilience. In N. Maheshwari & V. V. Kumar, Military psychology: Concepts, trends and interventions (pp. 231–248). Sage.
• Bavolar, J., & Bacikova-Sleskova, M. (2020). Psychological protective factors mediate the relationship between decision-making styles and mental health. Current Psychology, 39, 1277–1286. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9831-9
• Belschak, F. D., Den Hartog, D. N., & Fay, D. (2010). Exploring positive, negative and context-dependent aspects of proactive behaviors at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(2), 267–273. DOI: 10.1348/096317910X501143
• Bennion, L. D., & Adams, G. R. (1986). A revision of the extended version of the objective measure of ego identity status: An identity instrument for use with late adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 1(2), 183–197. doi: 10.1177/074355488612005
• Bruckman, J. C. (2008). Overcoming resistance to change: Causal factors, interventions, and critical values. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 11(2), 211–219. DOI: 10.1080/10887150802371708
• Bublewski, W. (1992). Wychowanie morskie. Próba określenia pojęcia [Maritime education: An attempt to define the concept]. Harcerstwo, 34(11–12), 12–17.
• Caourso, M., & Borsci, S. (2013). Effects of a tall ship sail training experience on adolescents’ self-concept. International Journal of Educational Research, 58, 15–24. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijer.2013.01.004
• Choi, N. (2005). Self-efficacy and self-concept as predictors of college students’ academic performance. Psychology in the Schools, 42(2), 197–205.
• Coch, L., & French, J. R. (1948). Overcoming resistance to change. Human Relations, 1(4), 512–532. DOI: 10.1177/001872674800100408
• Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(3), 98–101. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783
• Cooper-Thomas, H. D., Paterson, N. L., Stadler, M. J., & Saks, A. M. (2014). The relative importance of proactive behaviors and outcomes for predicting newcomer learning, well-being, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 84(3), 318–331. DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.02.007
• Crant, M. J. (1996). The proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. Management, 29(3), 62–74.
• Curşeu, P. L., & Schruijer, S. G. (2012). Decision styles and rationality: An analysis of the predictive validity of the general decision-making style inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 72(6), 1053–1062. DOI: 10.1177/0013164412448066
• Cyniak-Cieciura, M., Zawadzki, B., & Strelau, J. (2016). Formalna Charakterystyka Zachowania – Kwestionariusz Temperamentu: Wersja Zrewidowana. Podręcznik [Formal behavioral characteristics – Temperament questionnaire, revised version: A handbook]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego.
• de Vries, H., Dijkstra, M., & Kuhlman, P. (1988). Self-efficacy: The third factor besides attitude and subjective norm as a predictor of behavioural intentions. Health Education Research, 3(3), 273–282. doi: 10.1093/her/3.3.273
• Dimitrios, M. M. (2008). Proactivity and work experience as predictors of careerenhancing strategies. Human Resource Development International, 11(5), 523–537. DOI: 10.1080/13678860802417668
• Drucka, N. (1969). Kurs na słońce. Opowieść o generale Mariuszu Zaruskim [Heading for the sun: The story of General Mariusz Zaruski]. Wydawnictwo Harcerskie.
• Eliasz, A. (1981). Temperament a system regulacji stymulacji [Temperament and the stimulation regulation system]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
• Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics. Sage.
• Ford, J. D., Ford, L. W., & D'Amelio, A. (2008). Resistance to change: The rest of the story. Academy of Management Review, 33(2), 362–377. DOI: 10.5465/amr.2008.31193235
• Friedensberg, E. (1985). Reactivity and individual style of work exemplified by constructional-type task performance: A developmental study. In J. Strelau, F. H. Farley, & A. Gale, The biological bases of personality and behavior: Theories, measurement techniques, and development (pp. 241–253). Hemisphere.
• Głowacki, W. (1972). Wspaniały świat żeglarstwa. Z dziejów żeglarstwa w Polsce i na świecie [The wonderful world of sailing: From the history of sailing in Poland and around the world]. Wydawnictwo Morskie Gdańsk.
• Gore, P. A. (2006). Academic self-efficacy as a predictor of college outcomes: Two incremental validity studies. Journal of Career Assessment, 14(1), 92–115. doi: 10.1177/1069072705281367
• Hon, A. H., Bloom, M., & Crant, M. J. (2011). Overcoming resistance to change and enhancing creative performance. Journal of Management, 40(3), 919–941. DOI: 10.1177/0149206311415418
• Hunter, J. A., Hayhurst, J., Kafka, S., Boyes, M., Ruffman, T., O'Brien, K., & Stringer, M. (2013). Elevated self-esteem 12 months following a 10-day developmental voyage. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(9), 1956–1961.
• Hunter, J. A., Kafka, S., Hayhurst, J., Clark, H., Dickerson, D., Harold, G., Boyes, M., O'Brien, K., Stringer, M. (2010). Increased self-efficacy following a ten-day developmental voyage. Journal of Child & Adolescent Mental Health, 22(1), 63–65.
• Jasser, A. (2012, April 28). Wypowiedź po otrzymaniu Krzyża Kawalerskiego w trakcie uroczystego Otwarcia Sezonu Żeglarskiego połączonego z obchodami 90-lecia Chojnickiego Klubu Żeglarskiego [Statement after receiving the Knight’s Cross during the ceremonial Opening of the Sailing Season combined with the celebration of the 90th anniversary of the Chojnice Sailing Club]. Charzykowy.
• Jerusalem, M., & Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy as a resource factor in stress appraisal processes. In R. Schwarzer, Self-efficacy: Thought control of action (pp. 195–213). Hemisphere.
• Kafka, S., Hayhurst, J., Boyes, M., Scarf, D., Ruffman, T., & Hunter, J. (2016). Charting a course to self-esteem: Evidence from four independent studies showing elevated self-esteem following in a 10-day voyage. In F. Holloway, Self-esteem: Perspectives, influences and improvement strategies (pp. 195–230). Nova Science Publishers.
• Kally, P. W., & Heesacker, M. (2003). Effects of a ship-based adventure program on adolescent self-esteem and ego-identity development. Journal of Experimental Education, 26(2), 97–104.
• Kanten, P., & Alparslan, A. M. (2013). Proactive Behavior Scale: A study of validity and reliability. Sosyal Bilimler Meslek Yüksekokulu Dergisi Cilt, 16(2), 21–42.
• Klonek, F. E. (2014). Dynamics of resistance to change: A sequential analysis of change agents in action. Journal of Change Management, 14(3), 334–360. DOI: 10.1080/14697017.2014.896392
• Klonowicz, T. (1986). Reactivity and performance: The third side of the coin. In J. Strelau, F. H. Farley, & A. Gale (Eds.), The biological bases of personality and behavior: Psychophysiology, performance, and application (pp. 119–126). Hemisphere.
• Kobasa, S. (1979). Stressful life events, personality and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.1
• Koni, E., Moradi, S., Arahanga-Doyle, H., Neha, T., Hayhurst, J. G., Boyes, M., Cruwys, T., Hunter, J. A., & Scarf, D. (2019). Promoting resilience in adolescents: A new social identity benefits those who need it most. PLoS ONE, 14(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210521
• Lawrence, P. R. (1969). How to deal with resistance to change. Harvard Business Review, 47(1), 4–6.
• Loo, R. (2000). A psychometric evaluation of the General Decision-Making Style Inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(5), 895–905. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00241-X
• McCulloch, K., McLaughlin, P., Allison, P., Edwards, V., & Tett, L. (2010). Sail training as education: More than mere adventure. Oxford Review of Education, 36(6), 661–676.
• McCulloch, K. H. (2002). Four days before the mast: A study of sail training in the UK [Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of Edinburgh].
• Michel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. Wiley.
• Neill, J. T. (2018). Enhancing life effectiveness: The impacts of outdoor education programs [Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Australia].
• Norris, R. M., & Weinman, J. A. (1996). Psychological change following a long sail training voyage. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(2), 189–194.
• Nosarzewski, J. (1999). Efekty uczenia się uwarunkowane właściwościami temperamentu [Learning effects determined by temperament properties]. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 2(1), 19–31.
• Ogunyemi, A. O., & Mabekoje, S. O. (2007). Self-efficacy, risk-taking behavior and mental health as predictors of personal growth initiative among university undergraduates. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 5(2), 349–362.
• Ohly, S., & Fritz, C. (2007). Challenging the status quo: What motivates proactive behaviour? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(4), 623–629. DOI: 10.1348/096317907X180360
• Oreg, S. (2003). Resistance to change: Developing an individual differences measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 680–693. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.680
• Páez-Gallego, J., Gallardo-Lopez, J. A., López-Noguero, F., & Rodrigo-Moriche, M. P. (2020). Analysis of the relationship between psychological well-being and decision making in adolescent students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1195. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01195
• Palmer, B. (2004). Making change work: Practical tools for overcoming human resistance to change. ASQ Quality Press.
• Parker, S., Bindl, U., & Strauss, K. (2010). Making things happen: A model of proactive motivation. Journal of Management, 36(4), 827–856. DOI: 10.1177/0149206310363732
• Petrocelli, J. V. (2003). Factor validation of the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale: Evidence for a short version. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143(4), 405–413. DOI: 10.1080/00224540309598453
• Piko, B. F., Luszczynska, A., Gibbons, F. X., & Tekozel, M. (2005). A culture-based study of personal and social influences of adolescent smoking. European Journal of Public Health, 15, 393–398. DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/cki008
• Pitt, L., Ewing, M., & Berthon, P. (2002). Proactive behavior and industrial salesforce performance. Industrial Marketing Management, 31(8), 639–644. DOI: 10.1016/S0019-8501(01)00171-7
• Rickinson, M., Dillon, J., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D., & Benefield, P. (2004). A review of research on outdoor learning. Field Studies Council.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2014). Żeglarstwo morskie osób niepełnosprawnych jako sposób ich aktywizacji, rehabilitacji i integracji [Sea sailing of disabled people as a method for their activation, rehabilitation, and integration]. In K. Heland--Kurzak (Ed.), Poszukiwania badawcze doktorantów. Konceptualizacja, problematyzacja, operacjonalizacja [Research exploration of PhD students: Conceptualization, problematization, and operationalization] (pp. 101–116). Wydawnictwo APS.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2015a). Człowiek w konfrontacji z żywiołem – sytuacje graniczne na morzu [Man in confrontation with the elements: Limit situations at sea]. In S. Jaronowska (Ed.), Człowiek w sytuacji granicznej. Filozoficzne, kulturowe i historyczne wymiary refleksji i jej implikacje pedagogiczne [Man in a limit situation: Philosophical, cultural, and historical dimensions of reflection and its pedagogical implications] (pp. 360–368). Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2015b). Szkoła pod Żaglami a realizacja celów rozwojowych okresu adolescencji [School Under the Sails and the implementation of development goals of adolescence]. In M. J. Szymański & B. Przybylski (Eds.), W kręgu współczesnych problemów edukacyjnych [On contemporary educational problems] (pp. 225–254). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2016). Wybrane projekty wychowania morskiego realizowane w Polsce [Selected sail training projects implemented in Poland]. Szkice Humanistyczne, 1–2(39), 139–149.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2018). Mariusz Zaruski jako prekursor wychowania morskiego w Polsce [Mariusz Zaruski as a precursor of maritime education in Poland]. Problemy Opiekuńczo-Wychowawcze, 574(9), 3–13.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2020a). Nieprzeciętna młodzież a edukacja nieformalna w praktyce – poczucie własnej skuteczności młodych uczestników pełnomorskich rejsów a różne realizacje Szkoły pod Żaglami [Extraordinary youth and informal education in practice: Self-efficacy of young participants of high sea cruises and various implementations of School Under the Sails]. In B. Cieśleńska & E. Wiśniewska (Eds.), Uczeń ze specjalnymi potrzebami edukacyjnymi w teorii i praktyce szkolnej [Students with special educational needs in school theory and practice] (pp. 393–408). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Mazowiecka Uczelnia Publiczna w Płocku.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2020b). Samoocena młodych uczestników pełnomorskich rejsów a różne realizacje Szkoły pod Żaglami [Self-assessment of young participants of sea cruises and various implementations of School Under the Sails]. Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, 65(2(256)), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.31338/2657-6007.kp.2020-2.10
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2020c). Wychowanie morskie i jego miejsce wśród koncepcji pedagogicznych [Sail training and its place among pedagogical concepts]. Problemy Opiekuńczo-Wychowawcze, 590(5), 3–16.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2021a). Kunszt żeglarski jako urzeczywistnienie idei twórczości i mistrzostwa [Sailing craftsmanship as a realization of the idea of creativity and mastery]. In J. Łaszczyk (Ed.), Na drodze do twórczości i mistrzostwa [On the way to creativity and mastery] (pp. 67–74). Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej.
• Romaniuk, M. W. (2021b). The role of sail training as a factor strengthening the hardiness of extraordinary youth. Przegląd Badań Edukacyjnych, 1(32), 179–192. DOI: 10.12775/PBE.2021.010
• Romaniuk, M. W., & Łukasiewicz-Wieleba, J. (2019). Żeglarstwo morskie w oczach młodzieży – wyobrażenia, obawy i oczekiwania [Sea sailing in the eyes of young people: Ideas, fears, and expectations]. Edukacja, 4(151), 123–138. DOI: 10.24131/3724.190409
• Romaniuk, M. W., & Łukasiewicz-Wieleba, J. (2020). Pasja żeglarstwa jako element transferu międzypokoleniowego [Passion for sailing as an element of intergenerational transfer]. Kultura i Edukacja, 1(127), 180–194.
• Romaniuk, M. W., & Łukasiewicz-Wieleba, J. (2021). A seagoing sailing yacht as a development environment for sailing people. Studia Pedagogiczne. Problemy społeczne, edukacyjne i artystyczne, 36/2021, 145–165. DOI: 10.25951/4384
• Schmitz, G. S., & Schwarzer, R. (1999). Proaktive einstellung von lehrern: Konstruktbeschreibung und psychometrische analysen. Zeitschrift für Empirische Padagogik, 13, 3–27.
• Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-Making style: The development and assessment of a new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(5), 818–831. DOI: 10.1177/0013164495055005017.
• Seijts, G. H. (1998). The importance of future time perspective in theories of work motivation. The Journal of Psychology, 132(2), 154–168. DOI: 10.1080/00223989809599156
• Shores, K., & Scott, D. (2007). The relationship of individual time perspective and recreation experience preferences. Journal of Leisure Research, 39(1), 28–59. DOI: 10.1080/00222216.2007.11950097
• Śliwko, P. (1982). Wiatr od morza i wychowanie [Wind from the sea and upbringing]. In P. Śliwko (Ed.), Bolesławiecki model wychowania morskiego Szkoły Podstawowej Nr 8 im. Bojowników o Wolność i Demokrację wyróżnionej Złotą Odznaką "Zasłużony pracownik morza" [The Bolesławiec model of maritime education at Fighters for Freedom and Democracy Primary School No. 8, awarded the Golden Badge “Distinguished Sea Worker”] (pp. 5–23). Stowarzyszenie Działaczy Kultury Morskiej w Gdyni.
• Stępień, H. (1997). Mariusz Zaruski. Opowieść biograficzna [Mariusz Zaruski: Biographical story]. Greg s. c.
• Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D. S., & Edwards, S. C. (1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 742–752. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.742
• Strelau, J. (1974). Temperament as an expression of energy level and temporal features of behavior. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 5, 119–127.
• Strelau, J. (1983). A regulative theory of temperament. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35(3), 305–317. DOI: 10.1080/00049538308258746
• Strelau, J. (2009). Psychologia temperamentu [The psychology of temperament]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.
• Strelau, J., & Plomin, R. (1992). A tale of two theories of temperament. In G. V. Caprara & G. L. Van Heck (Eds.), Modern personality psychology: Critical reviews and new directions (pp. 327–351). Harvester Wheatsheaf.
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
• Toepoel, V. (2010). Is consideration of future consequences a changeable construct? Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 951–956. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.029.
• van Dam, K., & Meulders, M. (2021). The Adaptability Scale: Development, internal consistency, and initial validity evidence. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(2), 123–134. DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000591
• Wagnild, G. M., & Young, H. M. (1993). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale. Journal of nursing measurement, 1(2), 165–178.
• Wędziński, W. (1990). Mariusz Zaruski. Wychowawca młodzieży w idei morskiej [Mariusz Zaruski: Youth educator in the maritime idea]. Wydawnictwo Pomorskie RPK PTTK w Gdańsku.
• Wieczorkowska-Wierzbińska, G. (2011). System regulacji stymulacji: styl działania, poziom i typ aktywności i temperament [Stimulation regulation system: Action style, level, and type of activity and temperament]. In W. Marszał-Wiśniewska & J. Strelau (Eds.), Uwikłany temperament [Entangled temperament] (pp. 71–92). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
• Wojcikiewicz, S. K., & Mural, Z. B. (2010). A Deweyian framework for youth development in experiential education: Perspectives from sail training and sailing instruction. Journal of Experimental Education, 33(2), 105–119. DOI: 10.1177/105382591003300202.
• Woźniak, R. (1989). Poradnik wychowania morskiego [Maritime education guide]. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne.
• Wright, J. C., & Mischel, W. (1987). A conditional approach to dispositional constructs: The local predictability of social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1159–1177.
• Wu, C.-H., Parker, S. K., Wu, L.-Z., & Lee, C. (2018). When and why people engage in different forms of proactive behavior: Interactive effects of self-construals and work characteristics. Academy of Management Journal, 61(1), 293–323. DOI: 10.5465/amj.2013.1064
• Zaruski, M. (1925). Żaglowym yachtem przez Bałtyk. Pierwsza podróż yachtu polskiego do Szwecji 20.VIII–30.VIII.1925 [A sailing yacht across the Baltic Sea: The first trip of a Polish yacht to Sweden, August 20–August 30, 1925]. Wydawnictwo Yacht-Klubu Polski.
• Zaruski, M. (1933). Prawa i obowiązki kapitanów i sterników jachtowych. Regulamin służby na jachtach. Alarmy [Rights and obligations of yacht captains and helmsmen: Regulations of service on yachts. Alarms]. Główna Księgarnia Wojskowa.
• Zaruski, M. (1958). Wśród wichrów i fal [Among the winds and waves]. Wydawnictwo “Sport i turystyka”.
• Zawadzki, B., & Strelau, J. (1997). Formalna Charakterystyka Zachowania – Kwestionariusz Temperamentu (FCZ-KT). Podręcznik [Formal behavioral characteristics – Temperament Questionnaire (FBC-TQ): A handbook]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego.
• Zawadzki, B., & Strelau, J. (2003). Trzy podstawowe typy czy cztery struktury temperamentu? [Three basic types or four temperament structures?]. Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 9(2), 271–285.
• Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (2015). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. In M. Stolarski, N. Fieulaine, & W. van Beek (Eds.), Time perspective theory – Review, research and application: Essays in honor of Philip G. Zimbardo (pp. 17–55). Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-07368-2_2.

Identifiers

DOI

10.35765/mjse.2024.1325.16

Biblioteka Nauki

44456792