Biblical Ban on Tattoos (Lev 19:26-28). Background, Context, Meaning and Perspectives

• Authors: Bartłomiej Mateusz Sokal

Title variants

PL

Biblijny zakaz tatuażu (Kpł 19, 26-28). Tło, kontekst, znaczenie i perspektywy

Abstracts

PL

Głównym tematem artykułu jest krytyczna analiza znaczenia zakazu tatuażu zawartego w Kpł 19, 26–28 oraz badanie historycznych oraz kulturowych kontekstów praktyki tatuowania w starożytności. Zapis Księgi Kapłańskiej jest osadzony w kontekście zbioru zakazów praktyk magicznych, imitujących religijne zwyczaje narodów ościennych, w związku z czym analiza kontekstu pozwala dotrzeć do głównej motywacji, która towarzyszyła prawodawcy. Pierwszym krokiem jest analiza motywacji tatuażu w krajach ościennych Izraela, by dalej ustalić główne powody, dla których w starożytności wykonywano tatuowanie ciała. Następnie szczegółowej analizie filologicznej oraz egzegetycznej poddane zostaną zakazy z ww. 26–28, by na tej podstawie prześledzić w kolejnym kroku, jak starożytni tłumacze rozumieli te zakazy. Dalej, po zarysowaniu zagadnienia w literaturze rabinicznej, sformułowane zostały główne wnioski dotyczące praktyki tatuowania w Księdze Kapłańskiej.

EN

The main subject of the paper is a critical evaluation of meaning behind ban on tattoos in Lev 19:26-28 and analysis of historic and cultural contexts of the practice in antiquity. An exempt of Leviticus is deeply entrenched in its context of commandments which forbid imitating religious customs of surrounding cultures and their magical practices, so the research into all of contexts allows reaching main motivation behind the ban and main meaning behind the practice in Israel and in antiquity in general. First step is analysis of motivation for getting tattoos in Israel’s neighboring countries to determine main reasons which led ancient people to tattooing and being tattooed. Then, we undergo a thorough philological and exegetical analysis of bans in vv. 26–28, which allows us to understand perspectives which followed authors of ancient biblical translations. Next, after an overview of rabbinic literature we form main conclusions concerning tattoos practice in Leviticus.

Keywords

EN

tattoo; tattoos in antiquity; tattooing prohibition; polytheistic rituals; theological context of Lev 19:26-28

PL

tatuaż; tatuaże w starożytności; zakaz tatuażu; teologiczny kontekst Kpł 19, 26–28; politeistyczne rytuały

• Publisher: Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne w Łodzi
• Journal: Łódzkie Studia Teologiczne
• Year: 2022
• Volume: 31
• Issue: 1
• Pages: 71-96

Dates

published

2022

Contributors

author

Bartłomiej Mateusz Sokal

• Polska Agencja Żeglugi Powietrznej

References

• Albright W.F., Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan. A Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, Jordan Lectures in Comparative Religion 7, London 1968.
• Angulo J.C., Garcia-Diez M., Martinez M., Phallic Decoration in Paleolithic Art: Genital Scarification, Piercing and Tattoos, The Journal of Urology 186 (2011), 2498–2503.
• Arnaud D., Un document juridique concernant les oblats, Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 67 (1973), 147–156.
• Baentsch B., Exodus – Leviticus – Numeri, Göttinger Handkommentar zum Alten Testament 1/2; Göttingen 1903.
• Bianchi R.S., Tattoo in Ancient Egypt, in: Marks of Civilization. Artistic Transformations of the Human Body, ed. A. Rubin, Los Angeles 1988, 21–28.
• Brichto H.Ch., On Slaughter and Sacrifice, Blood and Atonement, Hebrew Union College Annual 47 (1976), 19–55.
• Brown F., Driver S.R., Briggs Ch.A., The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon, Boston 1906, reprint 2007 (BDB).
• Carmichael C.M., A Strange Sequence of Rules: Leviticus 19.20-26, in: Reading Leviticus, ed. J.F.A. Sawyer, Sheffield 1996, 182–205.
• Collins B.J., The Hittites and Their World, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 7 Atlanta 2007.
• Cryer F.H., Divination in Ancient Israel and its Near Eastern Environment. A Socio-Historical Investigation, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament. Supplement Series 142, Sheffield 1994.
• Dandamayev M.A., Slavery, in: The Yale Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. VI, ed. D.N. Freedman, Garden City, NY 1992, 65–73.
• Della Casa P., Matters of Identity: Body, Dress and Markers in Social Context, in: Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity, eds. P. Della Casa, C. Witt, Zurich Studies in Archaeology 9, Zurich 2013, 9–14.
• Derry D.E., Mummification. Methods practised at different periods, Annales du Service des antiquités de l’Egypt 41 (1942), 251–253.
• Dillman A., Ryssel V., Die Bücher Exodus und Leviticus, Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament 12, Leipzig 1897.
• Dorfer L., et al., A medical report from the stone age?, Lancet 354 (1999) 1023–1025.
• Dougherty R.P., The Shirkûtu of Babylonian Deities, New Haven 1923.
• Driver G.R., Miles J.C., The Babylonian Laws, Oxford 1952–1955.
• Driver G.R., Problems in Aramaic and Hebrew Texts, in: Miscellanea Orientalia. Fs. A. Deimel, Analecta Orientalia 12, Rome 1935, 46–70.
• Elliger K., Leviticus, Handbuch zum Alten Testament.Erste Reihe 4, Tübingen 1966.
• Engelkemper W., Blut und Haare in der Totentrauer bei den Hebräern, Biblische Zeitschrift 7 (1909), 123–128.
• Fabry H.-J., Noch ein Dekalog! Die Thora des lebendinged Gottes in ihrer Wirkungsgeschichte, in: Im Gespräch mit dem deieinigen Gott. Fs. W. von Breunig, eds. M. Böhnke, H. Heinz, Düsseldorf 1985, 75–96.
• Fisher J.L., Tattooing the Body, Marking Culture, Body & Society 8 (2002) 4, 91–107.
• Fouquet D., Le tatouage médical en Égypte dans l’antiquité et à l’époque actuelle, Archives d’Anthropologie Criminelle 13 (1898), 270–279.
• Fox N.S., Marked for servitude: Mesopotamia and the Bible, in: A Common Cultural Heritage, Studies on Mesopotamia and the Biblical World Fs. B.L. Eichler, eds. G. Frame et al., Bethesda, MD 2011, 267–278.
• Gevaryahu G.J., Ketovet Ka’aka (Leviticus 19:28): Tattooing or Branding?, Jewish Bible Quarterly 38 (2010) 1, 13–21.
• Gilbert S., The Tattoo History. A Source Book, New York–Berkeley, CA 2000.
• Grandet P., Le papyrus Harris I (BM 9999), Cairo 1994, Bibliothèque d’étude 109/1.
• Graves-Brown C., Dancing for Hathor, London–New York 2010.
• Grintz J., Do Not Eat on the Blood, Zion 31 (1966) 1–2, 1–17.
• Grintz Y.M., “Do not Eat on the Blood”: Reconsiderations in Setting and Dating of the Priestly Code, Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute 8 (1970–1971), 78–105.
• Gustafson M., The Tattoo in the Later Roman Empire and Beyond, in: Written on the Body. The Tattoo in European and American History, ed. J. Caplan, Princeton, NJ 2000, 17–31.
• Hayes W., The Scepter of Egypt, vol. II, New York 1959.
• Hoftijzer J., Jongeeling K., Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Incriptions, vol. I, Leiden–New York–Köln 1995.
• Hopkins K., Conquerors and Slaves. Sociological Studies in Roman History, vol. I Cambridge 1981.
• Huehnergard J., Liebowitz H., The Biblical Prohibition Against Tattooing, Vetus Testamentum 63 (2013), 59–77.
• Ikram S., Dodson A., The Mummy in Ancient Egypt. Equipping the Dead for Eternity, London 1998.
• Johnston M., Roman Life, Chicago 1957.
• Jones C.P., Stigma and Tattoo, in: Written on the Body. The Tattoo in European and American History, ed. J. Caplan, Princeton, NJ 2000, 1–16.
• Jones C.P., Stigma: Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity, The Journal of Roman Studies 77 (1987), 139–155.
• Joshel S., Slavery in the Roman World, New York 2010.
• Keimer L., Remarques sur le tatouage dans l’Egypte ancienne, Caire 1948.
• Klein E., Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, Jerusalem–Tel Aviv 1987.
• Koehler L., Baumgartner W., Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti, Leiden 1953.
• Kraus F.R., Briefe aus dem British Museum, Altbabylonische Briefe 2, Leiden 1966.
• Krutak L., The Power to Cure: A Brief History of Therapeutic Tattooing, in: Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity, eds. P. Della Casa, C. Witt, Zurich Studies in Archaeology 9, Zurich 2013, 27–34.
• Leslau W., Comparative Dictionary of Ge’ez (Classical Ethiopic): Ge’ez-English / English-Ge’ez. With an Index of the Semitic Roots, Wiesbaden 1991.
• Lewy M., Der Alte Orient: Wiege der abendländischen Tätowierungen, Jewish Museum Berlin Journal 10 (2014), 60–66.
• Loprieno A., Slavery and Servitude, in: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, ed. E. Frood, W. Wendrich, Los Angeles 2012, 10.
• Magonet J., The Structure and Meaning of Leviticus 19, Hebrew Annual Review 7 (1983), 151–167.
• Magor A., People Illustrated, Archaeology 2 (1999), 54–57.
• McGeough C.K., The Romans. New Perspectives, Santa Barbara, CA 2004.
• Meinardus O.F.A., Tattoo and Name: A Study on the Marks of Identification of the Egyptian Christians”, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 63–64 (1972), 27–39.
• Menu B., Captifs de guerre et dépendance rurale dans l’Égypte du Nouvel Empire, in: La dépendance rurale dans l’Antiquité égyptienne et proche-orientale, ed. B. Menu, Bibliothèque d’étude 140, Cairo 2004, 187–209.
• Meskell L., Joyce, R.A., Embodied Lives. Figuring Ancient Maya and Egyptian Experience, London 2003.
• Meskell L., Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt Princeton 2002.
• Michel M.L., Confidence and Despair. Job 19,25-27 in the Light of Northwest Semitic Studies, in: The Book of Job, ed. W.A.M. Beuken, Leuven 1994, 157–177.
• Milgrom J., Leviticus 17-22. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Bible 3A, New York 1964.
• Morris E.F., Paddle Dolls and Performance, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 47 (2011), 71–103.
• Nedelsohn O., Tattoo, in: Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. XIX, Jerusalem 1971, 831–832.
• Orizaga R.Y., Roman Cosmetics Revisited: Facial Modification and Identity, in: Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity, ed. P. Della Casa, C. Witt, Zurich Studies in Archaeology 9, Zurich 2013, 115–123.
• Poon K.W.C., Quickenden T.I., A Review of Tattooing in Ancient Egypt, The Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 17 (2006), 123–136.
• Rainier Ch., Ancient Marks. The Sacred Origins of Tattoos and Body Marking, San Rafael, CA 2006.
• Renaut L., Les tatouages d’Ötzi et la petite chirurgie traditionnelle, L’Anthropologie 108 (2004), 69–105.
• Renaut L., Signation chrétienne et marquage des captifs dans le monde antique: pratiques et représentations, in: Entre traces mémorielles et marques corporelles. Regards sur l’ennemi de l’Antiquité à nos jours, ed. J.-C. Caron, N. Planas, L. Lamoine, Clermont-Ferrand 2014, 269–283.
• Saggs H.W.F., The Greatness That Was Babylon, New York–Washington 1969.
• Satinover Fagen R., Phylacteries, The Yale Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. V, ed. D.N. Freedman, Garden City, NY 19925, 369.
• Schwartz B.J., Selected Chapters of the Holiness Code. A Literary Study of Leviticus 17-19, Jerusalem 1987.
• Shelton J.-A., As the Romans Did. A Source Book in Roman Social History, New York–Oxford 1988.
• Shishlina N.I., Belkevich E.V., Usachuk A.N., Bronze Age Tattoos: Sympathetic Magic or Decoration?, in: Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity, eds. P. Della Casa, C. Witt, Zurich Studies in Archaeology 9; Zurich 2013, 67–74.
• Smith G.E., The Ancient Egyptians and their influence upon the Civilization of Europe, New York 1911.
• Spindler K., The Man in the Ice. The Preserved Body of a Neolithic Man Reveals the Secrets of the Stone Age, Phoenix 2001.
• Strouhal E., Forman W., A Profile of Queen Mutnodjemet, The Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 3 (1992), 67–76.
• Strouhal E., Life in Ancient Egypt, London 1992.
• Tassie G.J., Identifying the Practice of Tattooing in Ancient Egypt and Nubia, Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 14 (2003), 85–101.
• Tronina A., ‘Redemptor meus vivat et in novissimo de terra surrectus sim’. Z dziejów egzegezy Hi 19:25, Scripturae Lumen 2 (2010), 125–136.
• Waraksa E., Female Figurines (Pharaonic Period), in: UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, ed. W. Wendrich, Los Angeles 2012, 1–6 (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4dg0d57b).
• Yatsenko S.A., The Tattoo System in the Ancient Iranian World, in: Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity, ed. P. Della Casa, C. Witt, Zurich Studies in Archaeology 9, Zurich 2013, 97–101.
• Zawadzki S., A Contribution to the Understanding of širkutu in the Light of a Text from the Ebabbar Archive, Altorientalische Forschungen 24 (1977), 226–230.
• Zipor M.A., Notes sur les chapitres XIX à XXII du Lévitique dans la Bible d’Alexandrie, Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 67 (1991) 4, 328–337.

Identifiers

DOI

10.52097/lst.2022.1.71-96

Biblioteka Nauki

22676680