Prawo karne wobec środków odurzających i psychotropowych (z problematyki teorii kryminalizacji)

• Authors: Krzysztof Krajewski

Title variants

EN

Illegal Drugs and Penal Law (Some Problems of the Theory of Criminalization)

• Languages of publication: PL

Abstracts

EN

The present policy of all countries of the world  towards narcotic  and psychotropic drugs is in fact prohibitionIST. This means that all circulation of such drugs  ‒ their manufacture, transport, import, export, introduction into trade, giving,  and sometimes also possession – is illegal and carries most severe penal sanctions in some cases. It should be borne in mind, though, that this prohibition is ONLY about eighty years old now. Before, despite a large numer of addicts (not at all smaller than today according to some estimations), purely medical approach to such persons prevailed, and the drugs were subject only (if at all) to some administrative control and rationing at most. The drug prohibition emerged immediately after World War I, chiefly in United Stetes. As can be judged today, the criminalization of drugs and addicts introduced in those days was highly emotional. For this reason, by no means the harmfulness of narcotic and psychotropic drugs on both the individual and the social scale, one should consider the use and reasons of prohibitive policy from the viewpoint of today’s standards of rational criminalization. It is unquestionable that any social policy with respect to drugs should aim first and foremost at reduction of their consumption. The question remains, though, about the extent to which prohibition and penal law can actually serve towards this aim. Universal in the world of today as it is, the prohibitive approach to drugs assumes a variety of forms. There are different models of prohibition which base on different penal law regulations. They can be classified in two dimensions: restrictiveness vs. permissiveness, and repressiveness vs. treatment. Te first of the above dimensions pertains to the extent of criminalization; the other one – to treatment by the law of addicted offenders. Restrictive systems are those which provide for absolute prohibition with no exceptions whatever and ban all circulation of drugs, possession included. Instead, permissive systems provide for  an extent of decriminalization of that circulation, chiefly with respect to possession of drugs. Involved here is usually decriminalization, or even total depenalization of possession of specific amounts of drugs or drugs possessed for a specific purpose as e.g. own consumption. This depenalization can be introduced not only by substantive law but also by procedural provisions law. In this latter case, elements of expediency are introduced, offering the prosecutor or court the possibility to discontinue proceedings or to drop the charge. Repressive systems treat addicted offenders like all the other offenders, applying to them regular penal sanctions both for traditional criminal offenses (as e.g.. theft), and for the “prohibitive” ones (such as possession of drugs). Treatment-oriented systems, instead, reflect a belief as to futility of punishing addicts: within tchem, attempts are made at implementing a principle “tratment instead of punishment”. In most cases, this means that an addict can avoid penal sanction if he submits to withdrawal treatment. The actual application of such provisions on conditional stay of proceedings usually depends on the seriousness of the offense committed. It can be stated that most of today’s European legislations try more or less consistently to combine elements of permissiveness with the treatment orientation. Particularly useful in the analysis of the reason and sense of prohibition are specific economic notions and categories used successfully within so-called economic approach in criminology: demand and supply. Therefore, to what extent are prohibition and penal law capable of reducing the demand for narcotic and psychotropic drugs? First, the demand for those substances is created by a great variety of categories of individuals. The first such category are the consumers. This group, however, is by no means uniform as it consists of both addicted persons, occasional users, and experimenters. Another group which is of great importance in terms of the aims of prohibition are potential consumers, that is practically the whole of socjety if we take the extreme approach. Penal law can influence those groups through its instruments of special and general prevention. The possibilities of applying individual prevention to addicts or occasional users are minimal, though, which results from the very essence of addiction. It is a general opinion today that punishment cannot force an addict to give up his addiction. Only therapy can potentially be successful here; but – an extremely important issue – therapy to which a person submits voluntarily. Today’s spread of this opinion is expressed in the above-mentioned principle of “treatment instead of punishment”. It means that, the very principle of prohibition preserved, penal repression with respect to addicts is avoided. In this interpretation, the individual preventive action of punishment is reserved for the group of persons who experiment with drugs (as it would be simply impossible to criminalize a mere wish to take drugs). The question still remains, though, whether punishment as a form of shock therapy makes any sense here. The general preventive effect of penal law assumes the forms of either deterrence or so-called positive prevention. Deterrence is entirely out of the question in the case of addicted drug consumers due to the considerable rigidity of their demand. Yet deterrence is just as inefficient with respect to potential consumers. This is caused by a huge dark number of “prohibition”, resulting from their specific nature of offenses without no victims: the police encounter immense difficulties trying to disclose such acts. Most legislators try to make up for these weak points introducing severe statutory penalties. This is ineffective in the light of the long-discovered truth that it is rather inevitability than severity of punishment that determines the effectiveness of deterrence. A similar problem arises with respect to potential integrative function of penal law. The question is whether this kind of function – consisting in reinforcement of specific values with the aim to integrate a group – can really be performed by relatively seldom euforced provisions such as no doubt the penal law provisions designed to safeguard prohibition. What remains, therefore, is just the argument, classically used when discussing the problem of decriminalization, that this step might be interpreted as a consent to a specific behavior (here, the taking of drugs) which, in turn, might have disastrous consequences. In this interpretation, prohibition is the last outpost to curb completely unrestrained spread of drug addiction. Penal law's inability to exert any crucial influence on demand considered, it is assumed more and more often today that prohibition aims basically at reducing the supply of drugs. The application of penal law to this area  is justified to the extent that its addressees are not addicts but manufacturers, smugglers, dealers and other such persons most of whom are not drugs consumers themselves but only derive profit from the addiction of others. No doubt, penal law sometimes succeeds to eliminate such persons by means of incapacitation or deterrence.  Generally, though, there is a specific and important internal contradiction involved in prohibition: delegalization of drugs in a situation of continued demand makes the  provision of supply a most attractive activity since it yields immense profits. As a result, not even the most severe penalties can either deter those involved in this activity or prevent the recruitment of their successors, the less so as the risks they run are actually rather small for reasons that have been mentioned above. It might perhaps prove possible to eliminate all supply of drugs, but not without the use of universal terror. This option, however, is out of the question in a democratic state governed by the ruled by law. Therefore, are there any alternatives to prohibition? The answer seems to be yes. First and foremost, one should realize the crucial problem of today’s drug addiction is demand. Admittedly, the demand for drugs can be seen as a apecific cultural constant, something we have to put up with. One should bear in mind, however, the  attempts at influencing that phenomenon with constructive and creative rather than destructive methods. Quite obviously, this is an extremely difficult and entangled  task – as difficult and  entangled as any struggle against the couses and not just the synptoms of a social problem. It seems, however, that work on developing constructive strategies to fight the demand  for drugs is the basic challenge of modern civilization. Namely, if we manage to gain any influence over the couses that make so many young people of today reach for drugs – if we manage to cause a reduction of that demand – departure from prohibition and resumption of the purely medical  approach to drugs might perhaps become possible. For this reason, decriminalization or legalization of drugs should be seen today as a long-term strategic aim; before it can actually be achieved, prolonged preparations, experiments, small steps strategies, and chiefly efforts towards reduction of demand by methods other than  repression are necessary. I believe it would be too risky if we tried to run this operation straight away and to leave the matter to be regulated by nothing but the forces of the free market. Finally, the fact has to be borne in mind that decriminalization can only be sensible if it is done globally; this means that such decision require close international co-operation and co-ordination.

Keywords

PL

prawo karne; środki odurzające; teoria kryminalizacji; penal law; illegal drugs; theory of criminalization; prawo karne; środki odurzające; teoria kryminalizacji; penal law; illegal drugs; theory of criminalization

EN

penal law; illegal drugs; theory of criminalization

• Publisher: Instytut Nauk Prawnych PAN / Institute of Legal Studies PAN
• Journal: Archiwum Kryminologii
• Year: 1995
• Issue: XXI
• Pages: 41-79

Dates

published

1995-07-22

Contributors

author

Krzysztof Krajewski

References

• Albrecht H.J., Bundesrepublik Deutschland [w:] J. Meyer (hrsg.): Betäubungsmittelstrafrecht in Westeuropa, Max-Planck-Inst. für Ausländ. u. Internat. Strafrecht, Freiburg 1987.
• Albrecht H.J., General Prevention and Social Control, „Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska” 1984 t. XXXI.
• Albrecht H.J., Kalamthout A. van (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• Ambos K., Drogen und Rauschgifthandel. Vorschläge aus den Andenregion. Konferenz der Comission Andina de Juristas im Lima vom 14-17 Juli 1993, „Kriminologisches Journal” 1994, nr 26.
• Bakalar J.B., Grinspoon L., Drug Control in a Free Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984.
• Baratta A., Rationale Drogenpolitik? Die soziologischen Dimensionen eines strafrechtlichen Verbots, „Kriminologisches Journal” 1990, nr 22.
• Barnet R.E., Curing the Drug Law Addiction. The Harmful Side of Legal Prohibition [w:] R. Hamowy (ed.), Dealing With Drugs, Consequences of Government Control, San Francisco 1987.
• Becker G.S., Zbrodnia i kara. Podejście ekonomiczne [w:] G.S. Becker, Ekonomiczna teoria zachowań ludzkich, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1990
• Bieńkowska E., Skupiński J., Problemy prawnej regulacji przeciwdziałania narkomanii w Polsce, „Studia Prawnicze” 1989, nr 1.
• Błachut J., Krajewski K., Projekt ustawy o prawnej ochronie dziecka poczętego (Uwagi kryminalnopolityczne i kryminologiczne), „Państwo i Prawo” 1993, nr 5.
• Böllinger L., Grenzenloses symbolisches Strafrecht: Zum Cannabis-Beschluß des Bundesverfassungsgerichts, „Kritische Justiz” 1994, t. 27, nr 4.
• Buchała K., Prawo karne materialne, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1980.
• Büllow A. von, Kontrollierter Heringenuß – eine bisker kaun bekannte Konsumvariante, „Kriminologisches Journal” 1989, nr 21.
• Chruściel T.K., Korosz Ł., Zapobieganie narkomanii w świetle polskiego prawa. Przepisy i objaśnienia, Wydawnictwo Prawnicze, Warszawa 1988.
• Cloward R.A., Ohlin L.E., Delinquency and Opportunity. A Theory of Delinquent Gangs, Free Press, New York 1960.
• Cohen P., Zur gegenwärtigen Situation der Amsterdamer Drogenpolitik, „Kriminologisches Journal” 1989, nr 2.
• Cohen S., Folks Devils and Moral Panics, Second Editions, Martin Robertson, Oxford 1980.
• Collinson M., Punishing Drugs. Criminal Justice and Drugs Use, „The British Journal of Criminology” 1993, t. 33, nr 3.
• Cornish D.B., R.V. Clarke (eds.), The Reasoning Criminal. Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending, Springer-Verlag, New York-Berlin 1986.
• Cuesta J.L. de la, The Present Spanish Drug Criminal Policy [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989
• Downes D., Contrasts in Tolerance. Post-war Penal Policy in The Netherlands and England and Wales, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1988.
• Dünkel F., Kiminalisierung und Entkriminalisierung von Drogentätern in the Bundersrepublik Deutschland [w:] M. Brustern, J.M. Häußling, P. Malinowski, Kryminologie im Spannungsfeld von Kriminalpolitik und Kriminalpraxis, Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart 1986.
• Erlich I., The Economic Approach to Crime: A Preliminary Assessment [w:] S.L. Messinger, E. Bittner (eds.), Criminology Review Yearbook, vol. 1, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills 1979.
• Falandysz L., O koncepcji tzw. przestępstw bez ofiar, „Państwo i Prawo” 1978, nr 8-9.
• Frankowski S., Nowy model zwalczania narkomanii w Anglii, „Przestępczość w Świecie” 1977, t. X.
• Friedman M., Der Drogenkrieg ist verloren, „Der Spiegel” 1992, nr 14.
• Frieske K., Sobiech R., Narkomania. Interpretacje problemu społecznego, Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych, Warszawa 1987.
• Gaberle A., Ostrowska M., Kara pozbawienia wolności a zapobieganie narkomanii, „Palestra” 1986, nr 5-6.
• Gaberle A., Ostrowska M., Prawo karne wobec zjawiska narkomanii (Uwagi na tle ustawy z dnia 31 I 1985 r.), „Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny” 1985, nr 4.
• Gaberle A., Patologia społeczna, Wydawnictwo Prawnicze, Warszawa 1993.
• Gardocki L., Zagadnienia teorii kryminalizacji, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1990.
• Gossop M., Narkomania. Mity i rzeczywistość, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1993.
• Gusfield J.R., Symbolic Crusade. Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement, Urbana 1963.
• Haag E. van den, Punishing Criminals. Concerning a Very Old and Painful Question, Basic Books, New York 1975.
• Hagan J., Modern Criminology. Crime, Criminal Behavior and Its Control, McGraw-Hill, New York 1985.
• Hanausek W., Toksykomania a przestępczość. „Studia kryminologiczne, kryminalistyczne i penitencjarne” 1975, t. 2.
• Hassemer W., Entkriminalisierung im Betäubungsmittelstrafrecht (maszynopis w posiadaniu autora).
• Hassemer W., Lüderssen K., Naucke W., Hauptprobleme der Generalprävention, Alfred Metzner, Frankfurt am Main 1979.
• Inciardi J.A., McBride D.C., The Case Against Criminalization [w:] J.A. Inciardi (ed.), The Drugs Legalization Debate, Sage Publications, Newbury Park 1991.
• Jednolita konwencja o środkach odurzających z 1961 r., sporządzona w Nowym Jorku dnia 30 marca 1961 r., Dz.U. z 1966 r. Nr 45 poz. 277.
• Kalamthout A. van, Characteristics of Drug Policy in the Netherlands [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• Kammerschen D.R., McKenzie R.B., Nardinelli C., Ekonomia, Fundacja Gospodarcza NSZZ, Gdańsk 1991.
• Kolarczyk T., Zadania więziennictwa w realizowaniu ustawy o zapobieganiu narkomanii, „Przegląd Penitencjarny i Kryminologiczny” 1986, nr 48.
• Konwencja o substancjach psychotropowych, sporządzona w Wiedniu dnia 21 lutego 1971 r., Dz.U. z 1976 r. Nr 31 poz. 180.
• Krajewski K., Czy zalegalizować narkotyki? Wokół debaty amerykańskiej, „Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny” 1992, nr 2.
• Krajewski K., Instytucja „plea bargaining” w amerykańskim procesie karnym, „Państwo i Prawo” 1980, nr 6.
• Krajewski K., Między prohibicją a legalizacją. Holenderski eksperyment w polityce wobec narkomanii, „Państwo i Prawo” 1995, nr 2.
• Krajewski K., Pozytywizm kryminologiczny i jego krytyka, „Archiwum Kryminologii” 1992, t. XVIII.
• Krajewski K., Teorie kryminologiczne a prawo karne, Dom Wydawniczy ABC, Warszawa 1994.
• Krajewski K., W kwestii kryminalizacji posiadania środków odurzających i psychotropowych, „Państwo i Prawo” 1992, nr 8.
• Kreuzer A., Wille R., Drogen - Kriminologie und Therapie, Heidelberg 1984.
• Kühne K., Terapia i odstraszanie: ustawodawstwo i praktyka w zakresie zwalczania uzależnienia narkotycznego w RFN, „Problemy Prawa Karnego” 1985, t. 10-11.
• Lindesmith R., The Addict and Law, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1965.
• Manna A., Barrone Riciardelli E., The Limitations and Formalities of Criminal Law Concerning Narcotics. Considerations on Legislation in Italy [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• Marshall J., Drugs and United States Foreign Policy [w:] R. Hamowy (ed.), Dealing With Drugs, Consequences of Government Control, San Francisco 1987.
• Mayer J., Rechtsvergleichender Querschnitt [w:] J. Meyer (hrsg.), Betäubungsmittelstrafrecht in Westeuropa, Max-Planck-Inst. für Ausländ. u. Internat. Strafrecht, Freiburg 1987.
• Merton R.K., Struktura społeczna i anomia oraz Teoria struktury społecznej i anomii. Kontynuacje [w:] R.K. Merton, Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1982.
• Meyer J. (hrsg.), Betäubungsmittelstrafrecht in Westeuropa, Max-Planck-Inst. für Ausländ. u. Internat. Strafrecht, Freiburg 1987.
• Michaels R.J., The Market for Heroin Before and After Legalization [w:] R. Hamowy (ed.), Dealing With Drugs, Consequences of Government Control, San Francisco 1987.
• Musto D., The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, Yale University Press, New Haven 1973.
• Nadelman E.A., The Case for Legalization [w:] J.A. Inciardi (ed.), The Drugs Legalization Debate, Sage Publications, Newbury Park 1991.
• Packer H., The Limits of Criminal Sanction, Stanford University Press, Stanford 1968.
• Redo S., Narkomania. Aspekty prawnokarne i kryminologiczne, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika, Toruń 1979.
• Redo S., Problem kryminogennej funkcji narkomanii, „Studia kryminologiczne, kryminalistyczne i penitencjarne” 1978, t. 8.
• Reuter P., Disorganized crime. The economics of the visible hand, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1983.
• Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962).
• Rouse J.J., Johnson B.D., Hidden Paradigms of Morality and Debated About Drugs. Historical and Policy Shifts in British and American Drug Policy [w:] J.A. Inciardi (ed.), The Drugs Legalization Debate, Sage Publications, Newbury Park 1991.
• Rutheford A., Green P., Illegal Drugs and British Criminal Justice Policy [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.): Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• Schmidt-Semisch H., Überlegungen zu einem legalen Zugang zu Heroin für alle, „Kriminologisches Journal” 1990, nr 22.
• Siemaszko A., Granice tolerancji. O teoriach zachowań dewiacyjnych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1993.
• Szamota B., O koncepcji tzw. „uniemożliwienia” w amerykańskiej doktrynie kryminologicznej, „Państwo i Prawo” 1990, nr 4.
• Ślusarczyk B., Narkomania. Problemy prawnokryminologiczne, Wydawnictwo Prawnicze, Warszawa 1991.
• Trautman F., Akzeptierende Drogenarbeit in Amsterdam. Wie fortschrittlich ist die niederländische Drogenpolitik heute? „Kriminologisches Journal” 1989, nr 2.
• Walker S., Sense and nonsense about crime and drugs. A policy guide, Pacific Groove 1989.
• Wiarda J., Drug Policies in Western Europe [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• Wilson J.Q., Thinking About Crime, Second Edition, Basic Books, New York 1983.
• Wisotsky S., Beyond the War on Drugs [w:] J.A. Inciardi (ed.), The Drugs Legalization Debate, Sage Publications, Newbury Park 1991.
• Wisotsky S., Recent Developments in the US War on Drugs [w:] H.J. Albrecht, A. van Kalamthout (hrsg.), Drug Policies in Western Europe, Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches und Internationales Strafrecht, Freiburg 1989.
• „Wprost” 1994, nr 10.
• Zinger N.E., The Use and Misuse of Intoxicants. Factors in the Development of Controlled Use [w:] R. Hamowy (ed.), Dealing With Drugs, Consequences of Government Control, San Francisco 1987.

Identifiers

DOI

10.7420/AK1995B