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1
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Kilka uwag o wpływie przycisku zdaniowego na interpretację przysłówków-modyfikatorów intencjonalności (na przykładzie niechcący, przypadkiem)

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Duraj-Nowosielska I.
Linguistica Copernicana
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2012
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issue 1(7)
113-137
EN
In the article I consider the problem of sentence stress and its influence on the semantics of the adverbs modifying information on the intentionality of actions, i.e. expressions such as niechcący 'unwillingly', nieświadomie 'unconsciously', przypadkiem 'accidentally', celowo 'on purpose', specjalnie 'intentionally' etc., with special attention paid to the two expressions from this class -niechcący and przypadkiem. I try to demonstrate how their interpretation may differ according to the position they take in the sentence structure. I assume that these units of language - as they are adverbs - belong primarily to the dictum of the sentence, which means that one should take the rhematic position as basic in the explication; all the differences that result from moving them to the thematic dictum should be then intepreted as secondary (as the effect of thematizing).
2
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O teście negacji, kontekstach interpretacyjnych i zdaniach „wyratowanych”*

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Duraj-Nowosielska I.
Linguistica Copernicana
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2013
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issue 2(10)
161-191
EN
In the article I address several problems concerning the role of so called negative linguistic evidence in semantic analysis. The focus is on two main questions. The first addresses the problem whether sentences inherently contradictory, used as justifications for semantic theses, should be anomalous in an absolute sense (i.e. whether they should remain incoherent in any thinkable context), or whether it is possible to “save” them in some contexts, without losing their value as semantic evidence. I point out that, if one aims at demonstrating contradiction on the surface of a sentence (by confronting a given lexeme with the negation of its alleged semantic components), one should not expect any irrefutable proof. On the other hand, grammatical anomalies can serve as excellent evidence in semantics, but sentences of this kind are not always possible to apply, and after all, they only give indirect evidence without making a semantic component in question explicit. If a contradiction concerns only the lexical level of a test sentence, it is possible that one will always be able to “save” the sentence; still, it does n o t mean that it is not contradicted, yet if we are to grasp this contradiction, we must apply strict criteria of sentence “codability”; I assume (after Bogusławski 2008, 2009 and Frege 1977 [1918]) that they are supplied by the frame of the predicate somebody said that_ together with the assumption that a statement in question was made seriously. The second issue addressed in the article focuses on how, exactly, a contradiction should be presented in a test sentence – since different grammatical constructions or different metatextual operators can render different test results. The analysis of some sentences referred to in several semantic papers shows that it is not a good idea to use conjunctive constructions with i ‘and’: although such sentences could easily be marked with an “alienating asterisk”, it is often not because they are inherently contradictory, but because of high “coherence requirements” characteristic of the conjunction i that are not fulfilled in them. For this reason it happens that the very cause of anomaly is interpreted incorrectly.
3
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O (tajemniczej) roli intencjonalnego działania w zdaniach z przysłówkiem przypadkiem

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Duraj-Nowosielska I.
Linguistica Copernicana
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2012
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issue 2(8)
127-171
EN
The article considers the relation of the Polish expressions connected with the notion of "accidentality" to the notion of action and agentivity in general. The expressions analyzed in the paper include przypadkiem, przypadkowo 'accidentally' or to przypadek, że_ 'it is an accident that_' (with special emphasis on the first one). Explications of the adverb przypadkiem in the two semantic papers referred to in the article - M. Grochowski (2009) and A. Bogusławski (2009) - emphasize such elements as "inexplicability", "unexpectedness" and, most importantly, "independence" of the events indicated by that predicate. Not denying such claims, I try to show that it is difficult to account for the semantics of przypadkiem without taking into consideration agentivity-related notions. First, this expression - as it is used in sentences - most often takes the role analogical to the one of "intentionality modifiers" (like niechcący 'unwillingly', nieświadomie 'unconsciously'); second - in some contexts przypadkiem operates on a metatextual level, indicating the very action of the speaker; and finally - there is reason to assume that it is exactly actions that enable "accidentality" ("independence") of events in the world in general. It means that actions would be at the center of all the accidentality-related predications, though they may not be explicitly mentioned in the sentence. The article is divided into three parts. The first provides characteristic features of the adverb przypadkiem as compared with other similar expressions (e.g. przez przypadek 'by accident'); with special emphasis put on where to find in the sentence content the "independent" events evoked by the notion of "accidentality". In the second part I demonstrate that "accidentality" predicated in the sentence points to some (hypothetical) actions undertaken by agents (not necessarily present in the sentence content). Since przypadkiem in the rhematic position and in the thematic position show different characteristics in certain interesting points, they are considered separately. And finally - in the third part I go beyons strictly linguistic considerations and try to answer the question why the adverb przypadkiem so evidently and so regularly evokes agentivity-related notions.
4
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Gdzie jest cel w zdaniach z celowo i kilka innych pytań o wyrażenia pokrewne

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Duraj-Nowosielska I.
Linguistica Copernicana
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2015
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issue 12
23-52
EN
In the article I discuss selected aspects concerning the semantics of expressions related to the notion of purpose in Polish: celowo [purposefully], celowy [purposeful], niecelowy, bezcelowy [purposeless], niecelowo, bezcelowo, bez celu [purposelessly] (in rough approximation of meaning). My starting point is the question mentioned in the title, i.e. where to “locate” the purpose one has in mind in sentences with celowo [purposefully]: whether it is external to what is indicated by the sentence predicate (ktoś powiedział coś celowo ‘somebody said something purposefully’ → somebody said something [p] in order to achieve something else [q], something other than the mere fact of saying p), or whether we mean the internal purpose, related strictly to the predicate (somebody destroyed something on purpose → somebody wanted to destroy it, destroying it was his purpose here). The ambiguity of sentences with the adverb celowo, as well as the adjective celowy, can be resolved by identifying the type of the verb in the position of sentence predicate. However, this is not a completely reliable test, and one can always come across sentences ambiguous in that matter (cf. celowe działanie → ‘action on purpose’, action having purpose in itself, or ‘purposeful action’, action directed towards some purpose). All the expressions mentioned above are being further analyzed in terms of “purpose localization”. This kind of distinction is followed by another one, connected with sentence perspective – either objective or subjective. What matters here is whether the speaker has in mind the agent’s purpose (external or internal → subjective perspective), or whether the speaker ignores the subject’s goals and estimates his action from the point of view of some objective aims fixed by the speaker himself, as in sentences: Rząd podejmuje bezcelowe działania [The government undertakes purposeless actions] or Przywrócenie pracownika do pracy byłoby niecelowe [Bringing the employee back to work would be purposeless]. Finally, we have three different “purpose locations” in sentences with the expressions in question, thus, three different “types of purpose”: subjective internal purpose, subjective external purpose and the objective one (the latter being always external to what is indicated by the sentence). Some of the analyzed expressions point to the type of purpose unambiguously (bezcelowo, bezcelowy, bez celu), others are ambiguous, expressing one of the two (celowo, niecelowo) or even three senses (celowy).
5
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Co to znaczy: robić coś świadomie oraz świadomie coś robić? Dyskusja na temat epistemiczności / wolitywności przysłówków świadomie / nieświadomie

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Duraj-Nowosielska I.
Linguistica Copernicana
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2016
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issue 13
107-142
EN
In the paper I reflect on the following questions concerning the Polish adverb świadomie ("consciously"): a) its relation to the adjective świadomy ("conscious"), on a syntactic and semantic level; b) the relation to its negative counterpart nieświadomie ("unconsciously"); c) how its interpretation depends on the intonational pattern of a sentence; d) how its interpretation depends on the intonational pattern of a sentence; d) how its interpretation depends on basic features of a modified verb. The key idea of the article, following the tradition of compositional semantics and semantic syntax (with a general reference to philosophical tradition), is that the adverb świadomie, both formally and semantically related to a stricly epistemic expression ktoś jest świadomy czegoś ("somebody is conscious of something"), in typical syntactic / intonational contexts shows certain features characteristic of volitional expressions (like celowo "purposefully" or umyślnie "deliberately"); I try to explain a semantic mechanism of this kind of transformation.
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