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EN
One of the crucial elements in assessing the general health of society in particular historical periods is the issue of the spread and frequency of bathing and access to bathhouses – the places where baths were performed. In order to outline this situation in Poland’s rural areas in the late Middle Ages, sources were examined, which were preserved in many records produced by noble and Church courts functioning in Lublin and Chełm regions in the 15th century. The preliminary assumption was that village bathhouses should appear in different contexts, particularly in records documenting perpetual transactions (especially sales deeds, pledges, partitions of property, and demarcations between estates). However, it turned out that there were only sporadic mentions of these facilities. Nevertheless, this does not mean that they were rarely found in the investigated period. Bathhouses were usually hardly profitable; consequently they were not mentioned when estates changed hands. We may also guess that the central location, for practical reasons, of bathhouses in individual villages was not conducive to mentioning bathhouses when all kinds of intra-village demarcations were made. Despite these limitations, several types of bathhouses have been distinguished. Apart from the facilities available for the peasants, located in the center of villages, the sources confirmed the existence of manor baths, perhaps with a restricted access only for residents of the owner’s manor. In very few cases these businesses were profitable and organized according to the same principles as other craft specialties and services provided in the country. The shortcomings of source information resulting from the character of the extant sources are the reason why this problem is either entirely absent from or negligibly mentioned in literature on the subject. This state of affairs could be changed by extending analogous studies onto the sources concerning other areas in Poland. There are such possibilities but they require painstaking source research without a guarantee of obtaining results commensurate with the work performed.
EN
The source texts contained in the current edition, collected from different archive units from State Archives in Lublin, are the continuation of the text published in the renowned Romanian journal “Istros” in 2014. The areas of Chełm and Lublin region were not intensively colonised by Walachian settlement at the turn of the Middle Ages and at the beginning of the modern times. It was used only in those areas which could not be colonized by regular farmers due to natural conditions, or when particular owners of farming villages strove to enrich their current agricultural profile with the breeding aspect, which took place through settling particular Walachian families. Thus, the significance of this period in the times of Walachian colonization was not to be found in its spread, the number of colonists or the villages inhabited by them. Instead, it is notable that those few Walachian settlements indicate the northern borderline of this colonising movement on the border of Lesser Poland and Red Ruthenia. Interestingly, the occurrence of villages which are 300 kilometers away from mountain areas, and which used Ius Valachicum, seems to contradict the established notion of Walachian settlement taking place only in the mountains and their neighbouring areas.
PL
Umieszczone w edycji teksty źródłowe, zawarte w różnych jednostkach archiwalnych przechowywanych w Archiwum Państwowym w Lublinie, stanowią kontynuację publikacji, która ukazała się drukiem w roku 2014 na łamach uznanego czasopisma rumuńskiego „Istros”. Obszary ziem chełmskiej i lubelskiej na przełomie średniowiecza i czasów nowożytnych nie były intensywnie kolonizowane przez żywioł wołoski. Osadnictwo takie występowało tylko na terenach, które ze względów naturalnych nie mogły zostać skolonizowane przez typowych rolników, albo też poszczególni właściciele wsi rolniczych zabiegali o wzbogacenie ich dotychczasowego profilu gospodarczego o wątek hodowlany, co następowało poprzez osadzanie pojedynczych rodzin wołoskich. Znaczenia tego obszaru w dziejach kolonizacji wołoskiej nie należy więc doszukiwać się w jej rozprzestrzenieniu, liczonym ilością kolonistów czy zamieszkiwanych przez nich osad wiejskich. Polega ono raczej na tym, że nieliczne osady wołoskie wyznaczają północny zasięg tego nurtu kolonizacyjnego na skraju Małopolski i Rusi Czerwonej. Odległe często o około 300 km od obszarów górskich wsie posługujące się Ius Valachicum zdają się przeczyć wciąż aktualnemu w literaturze przedmiotu jego postrzeganiu jako nurtu obejmującego wyłącznie góry i ich bezpośrednie zaplecze.
EN
The arguments included in the article were based on a small number of information preserved in the sources, which concern a seasonal presence of the Wallachian shepherds in the areas situated north of the line designating the scope of permanent (year-round) rural settlements founded on the Wallachian law. It was practised both in forests belonging to the king as well as in private estates throughout all seasons. This research resulted in the thesis stating that groups of the Wallachian shepherds led a seasonal grazing of their herds in the submontane areas already in the 15th century. Various factors, primarily of an economic nature, made these pastoral activities disappear or, at least, made them significantly limited at the turn of the 16th and 17th century. Pastoralism of a transhumance type existed throughout the entire period under discussion, in modern sources referred to as koszarnictwo (transhumance herding), consisting in periodic migrations of pastoral groups from permanent villages. Similarly to what I have claimed in my previously published research on the Wallachian pastoralism in the Carpathian areas, there are no indications in the sources, which would justify a thesis for a long time widespread in historical studies, on the presence of a nomadic phase in the history of the Wallachian colonization in the Polish areas. Also in the case of the areas currently studied, its existence can be given no confirmation.
PL
Rola pańszczyzn w systemie powinności mieszkańców wsi na prawie wołoskim w Małopolsce i Rusi Koronnej (XV-XVI stulecia) Celem artykułu była próba określenia roli pańszczyzn w systemie powinności świadczonych przez ludność zamieszkującą w osadach rządzących sie prawem wołoskim. W oparciu o krytyczną analizę dość licznie zachowanych materiałów źródłowych z badanego obszaru (zwłaszcza dokumentów związanych z lokacjami poszczególnych wsi, inwentarzy i lustracji królewszczyzn) podjęto próbę weryfikacji powszechnego w literaturze przedmiotu przekonania o braku lub co najwyżej minimalnym udziale pańszczyzn na rzecz właścicieli w systemie powinności mieszkańców. W efekcie wskazano na specyficzną cechę prawa wołoskiego, jaką był nieznany gdzie indziej lub występujący zaledwie w śladowej postaci, obowiązek wykonywania niewielkich, liczących kilka dni w roku robocizn, świadczonych na rzecz kniaziów. Odnotowano go w całym badanym okresie i na wszystkich obszarach objętych kolonizacją wołoską. Znacznie więcej wątpliwości budzi natomiast przekonanie o zupełnym braku pańszczyzn na rzecz właścicieli wsi. Zaprezentowany materiał źródłowy wskazuje, że rzeczywiście istniały osady których ten obowiązek nie dotyczył (i być może nawet ta sytuacja dominowała), jednak w innych występowały starsze, zwykle mniej uciążliwe formy prac (robocizny w wymiarze rocznym, „na rozkaz” itd.), natomiast próby narzucenia pańszczyzny tygodniowej sięgają lat 30.-40. XVI w. Jej powszechne wprowadzenie na obszarach pozagórskich ściśle łączy sie z rozwojem folwarku nastawionego na produkcję zboża. Dla osad wołoskich oznaczało to ograniczenie, a następnie całkowitą likwidację ich uprzywilejowanego statusu prawnego. Nie jest kwestia przypadku, że ten nurt kolonizacyjny ulega wyraźnemu zahamowaniu na przełomie XVI i XVII wieku. Losu tego uniknęły jedynie miejscowości, położone w typowej strefie górskiej, gdzie warunki naturalne uniemożliwiały na szerszą skalę uprawę zbóż. Tam egzystujące społeczności rządzące się prawem wołoskim trwały dłużej a procesy asymilacji i integracji z miejscowym otoczeniem zachodziły wolniej.   
EN
The Role of Serfdoms in the Obligation System of the Inhabitants of Villages on the Wallachian Law in Lesser Poland (Małopolska) and Crown Ruthenia (15th-16th century). The aim of the article is an attempt to define a role of serfdoms in the system of obligations provided by the population living in the settlements established on the Wallachian law. On the basis of a critical analysis of a relatively numerous sources preserved from the region in question (in particular, the documents associated with the rights given to individual villages, inventories, and royal domain), an attempt was made to verify the common belief in the scholarship on this topic about the lack of, or at least the minimum, share of the serfdoms for the owners in the obligation system of the inhabitants. As a result, a specific feature of the Wallachian law was indicated, which was the obligation – elsewhere unknown or occurring only in minute traces – of performing small errands a few times in a year for the benefit of the dukes (kniaź). It was recorded throughout the entire studied period and in all of the areas partaking in the Wallachian colonisation. In contrast, there are many more doubts regarding the conviction about a complete lack of serfdoms for the owners of villages. The presented source material indicates that there were indeed settlements to which this duty did not apply (and perhaps this situation was even dominating), but in other places the older and usually less strenuous forms of labours were present (annual works, duties “under the order”, ect.), while the attempts to impose weekly serfdoms date back to the 1530s and 1540s. Its widespread implementation in the areas outside of mountains is strictly linked to the development of a grange, set up for the production of grain. For the Wallachian settlements this meant a limitation, and then a thorough disposal of their privileged legal status. It is not a matter of coincidence that this colonising tendency was clearly restrained at the turn of the 16th and 17th century. This fate was avoided only be the villages situated in a typically mountainous area where the natural conditions prevented the production of crops on a large scale. Populations living therein – that were ruled by the Wallachian law – lasted longer and the processes of assimilation and integration with the local surroundings took place more slowly. .
FR
The Role of Serfdoms in the Obligation System of the Inhabitants of Villages on the Wallachian Law in Lesser Poland (Małopolska) and Crown Ruthenia (15th-16th century). The aim of the article is an attempt to define a role of serfdoms in the system of obligations provided by the population living in the settlements established on the Wallachian law. On the basis of a critical analysis of a relatively numerous sources preserved from the region in question (in particular, the documents associated with the rights given to individual villages, inventories, and royal domain), an attempt was made to verify the common belief in the scholarship on this topic about the lack of, or at least the minimum, share of the serfdoms for the owners in the obligation system of the inhabitants. As a result, a specific feature of the Wallachian law was indicated, which was the obligation – elsewhere unknown or occurring only in minute traces – of performing small errands a few times in a year for the benefit of the dukes (kniaź). It was recorded throughout the entire studied period and in all of the areas partaking in the Wallachian colonisation. In contrast, there are many more doubts regarding the conviction about a complete lack of serfdoms for the owners of villages. The presented source material indicates that there were indeed settlements to which this duty did not apply (and perhaps this situation was even dominating), but in other places the older and usually less strenuous forms of labours were present (annual works, duties “under the order”, ect.), while the attempts to impose weekly serfdoms date back to the 1530s and 1540s. Its widespread implementation in the areas outside of mountains is strictly linked to the development of a grange, set up for the production of grain. For the Wallachian settlements this meant a limitation, and then a thorough disposal of their privileged legal status. It is not a matter of coincidence that this colonising tendency was clearly restrained at the turn of the 16th and 17th century. This fate was avoided only be the villages situated in a typically mountainous area where the natural conditions prevented the production of crops on a large scale. Populations living therein – that were ruled by the Wallachian law – lasted longer and the processes of assimilation and integration with the local surroundings took place more slowly.
EN
The Wallachian settlement on the northern slopes of the Carpathians in the Little Ice Age (15th and 16th century). A significant deterioration of the climate took place in the Carpathians in the period from the 15th to the 19th century. It was a fragment of a global phenomenon referred to by various representatives of geoscience as the Little Ice Age (LIA). Arguments presented in the article were preceded by a preliminary assumption that these events had a particular impact on the living conditions of populations who inhabited the areas situated in the sub-mountain and mountain zones in the 15th and 16th century. Located in this area were the upper levels of various cultivated plants’ ranges, which were particularly crucial for the cultivation of winter cereal crops. Even minor fluctuations of multi-annual average temperatures could significantly increase or decrease them. The results contained in this work were formed on the basis of information from the sources, which are primarily of a fiscal nature and which so far have been underrated by historians of the climate. The analysis of changes taking place in individual settlements was conducted on the other hand by using the methodology applied by historians of human settlement. The outcome of the studies presented below offers a general conclusion on the existence of a widespread phenomenon in the discussed period of an increase in the Carpathian areas of elements from a model of the economic functioning of the village life which was based on stockbreeding. This happened at the expense of restricting or sometimes even eliminating agricultural activities. It was the main reason for which individual landowners fostered or initiated colonization based on the Wallachian law or, at least, on its elements. For this reason, the 16th century in particular became a period of a sudden development of this settlement trend in the Carpathian regions. This had serious consequences not only for the economy. The study draws attention to the fact that the introduction of these changes could take place due to the migration of ethnically foreign people who were acquainted with the secrets of a specialised stockbreeding, which was unavailable to classical farmers. Amongst the newcomers were also ethnic Vlachs. One of the consequences of these migrations was also a considerable increase in the scope of the Orthodoxy at the expense of Catholicism in Lesser Poland.
PL
Osadnictwo wołoskie na północnych stokach Karpatów podczas małej epoki lodowej (XV i XVI w.) W okresie od XV do XIX wieku w Karpatach miało miejsce znaczące pogorszenie klimatu. Jest to fragment zjawiska globalnego, przez przedstawicieli różnych nauk o ziemi zwane Małą Epoką Lodową (MEL). Rozważaniom zawartym w artykule towarzyszyło wstępne założenie, że te wydarzenia miały szczególny wpływ na warunki egzystencji społeczności zasiedlających na przestrzeni XV i XVI stulecia obszary położone w strefie podgórskiej i górskiej. Na tym obszarze znajdują się górne piętra zasięgu różnych roślin uprawnych, zwłaszcza kluczowych dla rolnictwa zbóż ozimych. Nawet niewielkie wahania wieloletnich średnich temperatur potrafią znacząco je podwyższać lub obniżać. Wnioski zawarte w pracy sformułowano w oparciu o informacje zawarte w źródłach przede wszystkim o charakterze skarbowym, do tej pory przez historyków klimatu niedoceniane. Analizę zachodzących w poszczególnych osadach zmian przeprowadzono z kolei posługując się metodyką stosowaną przez historyków osadnictwa. Efektem zaprezentowanych niżej badań jest generalny wniosek o istnieniu w analizowanym okresie powszechnego zjawiska narastania na obszarach karpackich elementów modelu gospodarczego funkcjonowania wsi opartego na hodowli. Odbywało się to kosztem ograniczania lub czasami nawet eliminowania zajęć rolniczych. Stanowiło to decydujący powód dla którego poszczególni wielcy właściciele ziemscy sprzyjali lub inicjowali kolonizację opartą na prawie wołoskim lub co najmniej na jego elementach. Z tej przyczyny zwłaszcza XVI wiek stał się okresem gwałtownego rozwoju tego nurtu osadniczego w rejonach karpackich. Miało to poważne konsekwencje nie tylko dla gospodarki. W pracy zwrócono uwagę, że wprowadzanie zmian mogło się odbyć poprzez migracje obcej etnicznie ludności-zaznajomionej z tajemnicami wyspecjalizowanej hodowli, niedostępnej klasycznym rolnikom. Wśród przybyszów pojawili się również etniczni Wołosi. Jedną z konsekwencji tych wędrówek było też znaczne rozszerzenie w Małopolsce zasięgu prawosławia kosztem katolicyzmu.
PL
The purpose of this article is to present the relationships which occurred between the settlement of numerous villages on the Wallachian law in the mountainous regions of Medieval Poland and the influx of settlers representing the Wallachian ethnos in this area. Without doubt, both Poles and Ruthenians could not play a decisive role in this process for they did not have the essential skills related to the economic exploitation of mountains, and they were particularly not able to conduct a pastoral economy on a mass scale. They were also not able to independently adapt the forms of social organisation of villages, which were specific for the Wallachian law. The Vlachs, pouring into the studied area throughout the 14th to 16th centuries, were arguably not numerous, but they played a key role in organising new settlements in the mountains. A particularly significant role in this process was played by the chiefs of the Wallachian villages-knyazes (knezes). They had adequate knowledge, financial possibilities as well as administrative and judicial power over the rest of the people in order to become a group, which, on the one hand, was disseminating the Wallachian law, and on the other hand, was consequently standing up for the Wallachian law which was beneficial to them. Even though they relatively quickly underwent assimilation processes and integration with the local surroundings, losing their original ethnic distinctiveness, the Wallachian law was still being spread. In that way, it turned from being an ethnic law into a symbol of privileging all people who were using it, regardless of their ethnicity. The purpose of this article is to present the relationships which occurred between the settlement of numerous villages on the Wallachian law in the mountainous regions of Medieval Poland and the influx of settlers representing the Wallachian ethnos in this area. Without doubt, both Poles and Ruthenians could not play a decisive role in this process for they did not have the essential skills related to the economic exploitation of mountains, and they were particularly not able to conduct a pastoral economy on a mass scale. They were also not able to independently adapt the forms of social organisation of villages, which were specific for the Wallachian law. The Vlachs, pouring into the studied area throughout the 14th to 16th centuries, were arguably not numerous, but they played a key role in organising new settlements in the mountains. A particularly significant role in this process was played by the chiefs of the Wallachian villages-knyazes (knezes). They had adequateknowledge, financial possibilities as well as administrative and judicial power over the rest of the people in order to become a group, which, on the one hand, was disseminating the Wallachian law, and on the other hand, was consequently standing up for the Wallachian law which was beneficial to them. Even though they relatively quickly underwent assimilation processes and integration with the local surroundings, losing their original ethnic distinctiveness, the Wallachian law was still being spread. In that way, it turned from being an ethnic law into a symbol of privileging all people who were using it, regardless of their ethnicity.
EN
The purpose of this article is to present the relationships which occurred between the settlement of numerous villages on the Wallachian law in the mountainous regions of Medieval Poland and the influx of settlers representing the Wallachian ethnos in this area. Without doubt, both Poles and Ruthenians could not play a decisive role in this process for they did not have the essential skills related to the economic exploitation of mountains, and they were particularly not able to conduct a pastoral economy on a mass scale. They were also not able to independently adapt the forms of social organisation of villages, which were specific for the Wallachian law. The Vlachs, pouring into the studied area throughout the 14th to 16th centuries, were arguably not numerous, but they played a key role in organising new settlements in the mountains. A particularly significant role in this process was played by the chiefs of the Wallachian villages-knyazes (knezes). They had adequate knowledge, financial possibilities as well as administrative and judicial power over the rest of the people in order to become a group, which, on the one hand, was disseminating the Wallachian law, and on the other hand, was consequently standing up for the Wallachian law which was beneficial to them. Even though they relatively quickly underwent assimilation processes and integration with the local surroundings, losing their original ethnic distinctiveness, the Wallachian law was still being spread. In that way, it turned from being an ethnic law into a symbol of privileging all people who were using it, regardless of their ethnicity.
EN
Migrations of the rural population on the Polish-Moldavian borderland in the 16th century. Historical studies are dominated by the belief that in the 16th century the trend of cross-border migrations between the lands controlled by the Polish-Lithuanian state and Moldavia was fading away. Hence, the settlement according the Vlach law, which was spreading at that time in Ruthenia, was supposed to be mainly the work of the local population or the ruthenized Vlachs who came to this area in the 15th century. The aim of the presented research was to confront this view with so far poorly used historical documents of quantitative nature, primarily inventories and lustrations of royal properties existing in Podolia. As a result, a significant intensity of migrations was found throughout the century. They ran in opposite directions: Moldavians (Vlachs) migrated to Poland and Ruthenians crossed the state border with Moldavia. Boundary region of Podolia was often only a temporary stop in this process. From this land, immigrants headed deeper into the country, actively participating in the process of establishing new shepherd settlements. 
PL
W literaturze historycznej dominuje przekonanie o zanikającym w ciągu XVI wieku nurcie migracji transgranicznych, mających miejsce między ziemiami kontrolowanymi przez państwo polsko-litewskie a Mołdawią. W ten sposób szerzące się w tym czasie na ziemiach ruskich osadnictwo na prawie wołoskim miało być dziełem przede wszystkim ludności miejscowej lub zrutenizowanych Wołochów, przybyłych na ten teren jeszcze w XV wieku. Celem zaprezentowanych badań było skonfrontowanie tego poglądu ze słabo dotąd wykorzystanymi źródłami o charakterze masowym, przede wszystkim inwentarzami i lustracjami dóbr królewskich egzystujących na Podolu. W efekcie stwierdzono znaczne natężenie badanych migracji w całym stuleciu. Przebiegały one w przeciwnych kierunkach: Mołdawianie (Wołosi) migrowali do Polski a Rusini przekraczali granicę państwową z Mołdawią. Przygraniczne Podole stanowiło często tylko przejściowy etap tych wędrówek. Z tej krainy imigranci kierowali się w głąb kraju, uczestnicząc aktywnie w procesie lokowania nowych osad pasterskich.
EN
The presented article aims at showing legal, structural, economic, and social changes taking place in villages situated in the areas on the Polish-Ruthenian border, with the example of Hrubieszów County in Chełm Land. On the basis of the analysis of the surviving sources (in particular the land registry with records of yearly courts in Hrubieszów, which so far has been used very rarely), the authors present means of permeation of the new model of village functioning on the basis of the German law into the socio-economic structures preserved in the areas of the Ruthenian lands. In the light of the conducted studies, emerges an area that was under the influence of new solutions coming from the west; it was partially adapted, but simultaneously, the former method of organising a village was to a large extent preserved. The problem is all the more complex since confronting these two economic solutions was overlapped with the religious and ethnic divisions. Therefore, it was necessary to shed some light on the connections between these transformations and the influx of foreign, migrating population. The article also presents factors that determined either the intensification or weakening of the ongoing changes.
PL
Prezentowany artykuł ma na celu ukazanie przemian prawno-ustrojowych, gospodarczych i społecznych następujących we wsiach położonych na obszarach pogranicza polsko-ruskiego na przykładzie powiatu hrubieszowskiego w ziemi chełmskiej. W oparciu o analizę zachowanego materiału źródłowego (zwłaszcza w niewielkim stopniu dotychczas wykorzystywanej księgi ziemskiej zawierającej zapisy roków sądowych odbywanych w Hrubieszowie) autorzy prezentują drogi przenikania nowego modelu funkcjonowania wsi opartego na prawie niemieckim do struktur społeczno-gospodarczych utrwalonych na obszarach ziem ruskich. W świetle prowadzonych badań wyłania się obszar znajdujący się pod wpływem oddziaływania nowych rozwiązań płynących z Zachodu, częściowo je adaptujący ale jednocześnie zachowujący w dużym stopniu dawny sposób organizacji wsi. Problem jest tym bardziej złożony, że konfrontacja tych dwóch rozwiązań gospodarczych nakłada się na podziały religijno-etniczne. Konieczne więc było naświetlenie związków tych przemian z napływem ludności obcej. W artykule przedstawiono także czynniki determinujące intensyfikacje lub osłabienie zachodzących przemian.
EN
The aim of the present article is to answer the general question of the circumstances in which women, in the reality of typically patriarchal peasant communities existing in late medieval Poland, were taking over the management of the farms left behind by their late husbands. The authors of the paper focus on a number of issues connected to this subject matter, in particular: the frequency with which such instances occurred, forms of managing the property by a widow, coniuncta manu ownership including women, and the duration of female management of properties. As neither judicial record books of the countryside areas from the Lublin region nor detailed inventories or their descriptions have been preserved, the abovementioned issues will be analysed on the basis of the only available sources, i.e. record books from noble or ecclesiastical courts. So far they have not been appreciated in the research of peasant communities, but it seems that a detailed analysis of the records included in the books may unveil new opportunities for studying social aspects of the operation of peasant communities.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest próba odpowiedzi na generalne pytanie o okoliczności, w jakich kobiety – w realiach typowo patriarchalnych społeczności chłopskich egzystujących w późnośredniowiecznej Polsce – po śmierci małżonka przejmowały zarząd nad pozostawionym przez niego gospodarstwem. Autorów interesować będzie wiele kwestii łączących się z tym zagadnieniem, a zwłaszcza: częstotliwość występowania takiej sytuacji, formy sprawowania przez wdowę władzy nad tym majątkiem, niedziały rodzinne z udziałem kobiety, czas trwania tych kobiecych rządów. Powyższe zagadnienia, wobec niezachowania się z terenów Lubelskiego wiejskich ksiąg sądowych, szczegółowych inwentarzy dóbr czy ich opisów, rozpatrzono na podstawie jedynych dostępnych źródeł – ksiąg sądów kościelnych i szlacheckich. Do tej pory w badaniach społeczności chłopskich nie były one doceniane, jednak, jak się wydaje, szczegółowa analiza zawartych w nich zapisów wskazuje na nowe możliwości badawcze społecznych aspektów funkcjonowania wspólnot chłopskich.
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