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PL
Artykuł ten to skrót wystąpienia na konferencji „Zagrożenia globalne barierami rozwoju”. Przedstawia on najpierw podstawy metodologii interdyscyplinarnych badań naukowych, a następnie – metodologii badań zagrożeń globalnych.
EN
The paper is a shortened version of a presentation at the conference “Global threats as barriers of development”. It presents first fundamentals of methodology of interdisciplinary scientific research, later – of methodology of research on global threats.
EN
The arrticle talks about reforms conducxted within EMU their contents and scope what is followed by discussion the reforms caused. EMU was launched without carrying through integration within the internal market. That could have been approved as a starting point for a new, higher level of integration in 1992. Nevertheless, it is difficult to accept such a situation to start further deepening of integration after over a quarter of century. Introduced reforms can be seen as solution gluing together states which are in EMU but at the same time it introduces a divide among them as well as among the outsiders. It is clear that the introduced solutions bring more stability and security to the capital and banking markets with introduction of new requirements but at the same time they do not eliminate possibilities to rise budget deficits or radical limitation of public debt in states, which at the starting point to EMU had surpassed approved convergence criteria. Despite some positive symptoms resulting from EMU reforms, economists evaluate the introduced changes with relatively limited enthusiasm. In general, the reforms were supposed to integrate closer the European states by closer convergence of the macro-parameters. It was also seen as a tool changing the value of dollar exchange rate and the role of dollar in international relations. Only part of the external goals was reached.  
PL
W artykule omawia się przeprowadzone w Unii Gospodarczo-Walutowej (UGiW) reformy, ich zakres oraz dyskusję, jaką problem ten wywołał. UGiW jest przede wszystkim realizowana bez dokończenia procesu w integracji na etapie rynku wewnętrznego. Można to było przyjąć jako punkt wyjściowy dla nowego, wyższego etapu integracji w 1992 r. Trudno jednak uznać za dobry start do pogłębiania UGiW, ponad ćwierć wieku później. Wprowadzone reformy mogą być uznane za rozwiązanie cementujące państwa uczestniczące w UGiW jednak wprowadza podziały między nimi, jak i między państwami uczestniczącymi w UGiW oraz w niej nieuczestniczącymi. Z pewnością wprowadzone rozwiązania zwiększają bezpieczeństwo rynku kapitałowego i bankowego przez zastosowanie nowych wymogów, jednak nie eliminują możliwości podnoszenia deficytu budżetowego czy radykalnego ograniczenia długu publicznego w krajach, w których od powstania UGiW przekracza on dopuszczalne przez kryteria konwergencji - wskaźniki. Mimo pewnych pozytywnych symptomów wynikających z reform UGiW, ekonomiści oceniają wprowadzone zmiany z ograniczonym entuzjazmem. Ogólnie reformy miały za cel bliżej zintegrować państwa europejskie przez pogłębienie konwergencji ich makro-parametrów. Widziano w UGiW także sposób na zmianę kursu dolara oraz zmianę jego pozycji międzynarodowej. Tylko część z tych celów udało się osiągnąć.
PL
The paper analyzes solutions used in the process of institutionalization of relations between UE, CIS member states and the states of Asia and Africa. It also analyzes influence of institutionalization of economic cooperation, particularly export and import, on the position of states involved. Different solutions, such as GSTP for least developed countries, are used. Attention is drawn to the asymmetry in trade relations with the less developed countries, which are given preferential access to EU markets. Those solutions are additionally strengthened by financial instruments. It seems that the results of these actions are positive: GNP increase of African states is higher than the GNP increase of EU-27, especially after 2009. The importance of European Commission and EBC is underlined as an important factor that stimulates growth in those countries. Similar cooperation but on different level is also observed in regard to other continents. The cooperation between Asia, Africa and CIS countries is not limited to transfer of funds. It also includes internationalization of contacts and liberalization of trade, services and capital flow as well as cooperation in research and support of economic transformation. The solutions applied are different for each country, however they are based on the same principles.
PL
Institutionalization of contacts between EU member stats and third countries influences structural changes in cooperating states, such as convergence of less developed economies to the level of the more developed ones and increase of efficiency of developed economies. All in all the overall level of welfare increases. The following paper defines cohesion and institutionalization and explains how those two processes are interlinked and what is their effect on economic growth dynamics and on diminishing of growth gap. Attention is drawn to the dynamic character of contacts between EU and it’s neighbors which translates into access to the EU market. Convergence is not limited to transfer of funds, materiel, expertise and know-how. EU acts also as a manager and controller of those processes. However the scope and dynamics of changes are limited in accordance with the political will of third parties. The process of convergence is beneficiary to all sides as their economies expand.
PL
The article discusses the problem of absence of symmetry between opening of the economy and opening of the society. Even though both discussed occurrences have their history, they are studied separately. In the article a hypothesis is put on existence of asymmetry between opening of the economy and opening of the society and this fact is seen as one of the obstacles which limits both studied and analysed processes. The attention in the article is turned to fact that there are measures which help to estimate the scale of opening of an economy, however there are no similar tools to measure openness of a society. This asymmetry limits our ability to understand the problem and to construct tools necessary to reduce it. The aim of the article is not to show actions or a plan for narrowing the existing gap between the two processes but pointing at the role of those two processes in shaping the effective policy in the two fields.
PL
The article shows possibilities of economic processes management in each economy, dividing them into internal methods and external methods. The later embrace conditions created by international environment as well as international organizations and relations established with them. Such management is strongly dependent on diversification of development of particular groups of economies, it takes into account national interests of different groups of economies and national, regional and global interests and differences among them. The concept is also strongly linked to stage of development of external institutional ties of each state. A separate part of the study is devoted to transmission channels which play an important role in helping to introduce certain solutions practiced and tested in other democracies. The subject covered in the article illustrates that only a limited number of countries make full use of the possibilities which were created by conditions of differentiated development and multilevel management, which creates an important component of the compound system, supporting it strongly. The conclusion of the article draws attention to the need of knowledge acquisition concerning sequencing of development and multilevel management of economic processes in each economy.
EN
The article presents roots of ENP in two dimensions: eastern and southern. It discusses ENP evolution in two phases, which led to its contemporary shape. It characterizes conditions in which policy is conducted and is pointed at answering question if currently the policy is national or if the EU should make an effort to withdraw from it or the opposite: engage more. Should it change the approach in which more aid is offered for more changes, what in short is called “more for more”. As a proof that policy can be effective in supporting transformation an example of the east states after 1989 is given. It is suggested that ENP should create a FTA. The article shows an important ENP aspect linked with differences: of level of development, followed by labor costs, law and institutional arrangements, and by economies’ branch structures. Attention is turned to ICT resolution, which seem to be main condition bringing together consumption patterns despite differences in development
PL
Artykuł wskazuje na znaczenie regionalnych rozwiązań integracyjnych, które dominują obecny etap międzynarodowych stosunków gospodarczych. Nie jest to nadmiernie odkrywcze i opinia na ten temat znalazła swoje odbicie w literaturze przedmiotu. Szczególna uwaga w tym opracowaniu skupia się na strukturach liberalizujących wymianę handlową, które tworzą zbiory łączne. Właściwością tych rozwiązań jest tworzenie warunków, w których wspólne elementy konkurują kosztami, co decyduje o dynamice ich rozwoju. Równocześnie mają dostęp do rynków zbytu reprezentujących najwyższy poziom rozwoju, a więc takich, na których odnotowuje się wysokie dochody i co za tym idzie – wysokie wymagania. Podkreśla się tu znaczenie zróżnicowanego poziomu rozwoju gospodarek, których kontakty są liberalizowane, i wskazuje się na znaczenie tego procesu dla gospodarek reprezentujących zarówno wyższy, jak i niższy poziom rozwoju. Zwraca się uwagę zarówno na różnice interesów obu grup gospodarek, jak i na trudności towarzyszące decyzjom o otwieraniu rynków i odejściu od wcześniej stosowanych rozwiązań protekcyjnych. W sumie dostarcza się argumentów wskazujących na określone koszty i dominację korzyści z wzajemnych kontaktów rynków rozwiniętych i tych pokonujących lukę rozwojową. Jest to syntetyczna argumentacja wskazująca na instytucjonalne rozwiązania, które sprzyjają rozwojowi w skali globalnej
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