Franciszek Bohomolec wrote his comedies first for theatre shows put on by Jesuit schools and then for the national stage founded by King Stanislaw August Poniatowski. In the first of these phases, the Jesuit poet often adapted works by playwrights who are now classics. One of the authors particularly favoured by him was Molière. Since the Society of Jesus did not allow female characters on stage (the actors performing in the shows were the boys studying in the Jesuit schools), Bohomolec was forced to remodel some motifs, characters and their motivations. Taking Molière’s Monsieur de Pourceaugnac for adaptation, he decided to replace the reason why the title character arrived in the capital. Pourceaugnac travelled from Limoges to Paris to marry a woman who was in love with another man, whereas his Polish counterpart, Dreynar, comes from Wrocław to Warsaw to accept an inheritance from his uncle. In Molière’s play, the misfortunes that befell the good-natured newcomer were concocted by the couple rightfully defending their love. In Bohomolec’s case, the culprit is a relative who is anxious not to lose claim to the inheritance. Dziedzic chytry [A Wily Heir], because this is the title of the Polish adaptation, is thus provided with a message quite different from Molière’s original. The Polish version conveys avarice, hostility towards the stranger, and not a small dose of cynicism. The undeserved indignities and grievances visited upon the newcomer situate the play among the literary works which present an overabundance of human misery, the most emblematic of them being Justine by Marquis de Sade. Since the comedy by Bohomolec is an interesting one, it seems justified to make it available to the readers. With that aim in mind, the present edition and an introduction to it have been prepared.
We present an edition of Molière’s Les Amants magnifique as rendered in Polish by Duchess Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa. The manuscript version of the paraphrase is titled Miłość wspaniała, whereas the eighteenth-century printed editions bear the title Przejźrzane nie mija. As the drama employs a play within a play device, the introduction to the edition discusses some issues regarding the phenomenon of metatheatricality. First of all, it presents some key proposals of understanding it, going back to the classifications advanced by Tadeusz Kowzan and the system devised by Sławomir Świątek on the basis of a theory of communication. The editor has thought it pertinent to advance his own proposition of tackling metatheatre that will enable us to analyse the phenomenon not only in reference to drama alone, but also in reference to theatrical performances. Starting with the assumption that the theatre performance is an artificial reality where there is an innate tension between reality and the imaginary convention, he distinguishes four aspects that pertain to metatheatricality. They are as follows: separation of a play within the play from the performance as a whole; transgression consisting in playing with the limits of the spectacle; two-way identification of the actor and the character being portrayed; and finally, absorption of the macrocosm of the world into the microcosm of the spectacle. Thus, the present publication of the text by Molière in Radziwiłłowa’s translation and adaptation gives us a chance to analyse the play itself as well as its 1749 performance at Nieśwież, where the Radziwiłłs had their private court theatre. Deployment of the above-mentioned conceptual tools enables us to better understand the purpose for which the Duchess utilised the metatheatrical devices proffered by Molière. It turns out that they were used to present the reality as being a kind of theatrum vitae humanae, on the stage of which the man is being tested. And although his progress is frustrated by various illusions and traps set up by others, by holding on to his virtue (to love, in particular) he is nonetheless able to act in accordance with his destiny, governed by Divine Providence.
The introductory article presents the conception of the present volume of Pamiętnik Teatralny (4/2014) that focuses mostly on the reception of Molière, but also, as there is such opportunity, of other French playwrights in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Most of all, the particular stages of absorbing the work of the great comedy writer are discussed. The initial phase of the process encompasses the plays performed at courts of distinguished Polish noblemen fascinated with French culture in the 17th century. The next phase brings the adaptations and paraphrases written by magnates in the Saxon period. The subsequent stage is marked by the presence of Molière’s comedies on the stages of schools run by religious orders, which included adaptations made by Father Franciszek Bohomolec. Public performances organised in Poland by foreigners constitute a separate phenomenon. The translations completed for the National Stage by Polish authors (by Wojciech Bogusławski and Jan Baudouin, among others) were also an important part of the reception process. It would also be worthwhile to note that it had its impact on theatres at provincial courts as well. The volume contains texts about other French playwrights as well. Much space is given to some issues concerning the work of Pierre de Marivaux, and a little less – to that of other playwrights. The following authors are mentioned, among others: Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, Philippe Quinault, Philippe Néricault Destouches, Jean François Regnard, and many others.
The Narodowy Theatre may not boast uninterrupted operation as a public institution and its name changed on numerous occasions, yet it may boast continuity of its tradition. The Narodowy Theatre continues to carry on the mission entrusted to the company of Actors of His Majesty’s Polish Comedies in 1765 as a programmatically Polish theatre. Tradition of the National Stage includes also the repertory written specifically for its purposes. The acting traditions seems equally important. Today’s actors of the National Theatre may boast the professional pedigree going back to the 18th century. Keeping all this in mind the author of the article argues for three theses. Firstly, all subsequent professional public theatres operative during the reign of King Stanislaw August comprise a single phenomenon, united by the same idea, viz. the National Stage. Secondly, one can discern in the phenomenon of the National Stage the tradition of Old-Polish theatres and, therefore, of former national stages. Thirdly, the present-day Narodowy Theatre can be treated as a continuation of the National Stage, whose traditions can be found in other Polish theatres as well.
The text elaborates on the postulate that theatrology turn into the study of spectacles. The author names three reasons for effecting such a change. The first is that the scope of theatre studies has already expanded to include not only theatre performances but some other kinds of spectacle as well. The second reason involves the strategy of academic research development. The strong position of performance studies – a discipline covering a larger group of spectacles – seems to be a threat for traditionally understood theatrology. One way of saving itself from this plight would be for theatrology to expand its area of research to encompass an even wider sphere of spectacle phenomena so that performance studies would function as its subdivision. The third reason, finally, has to do with etymology and the Greek concept of theatron, which, among other things, refers to spectacle. The argument involves an account of how theatrology and related studies have evolved and developed. The anthropological turn and new historicism are cited as examples of the expanding purview of theatre scholars. Then, the development of Polish performance studies is discussed. While discussing etymological issues, the 12th-century thinker Hugh of St Victor and his concept of “theatrics” is mentioned. The author of the article believes that as the Medieval “theatrics” was a practical knowledge of how to organise spectacles, today’s theatrology should become the theoretical study of phenomena that, apart from spectacles, would include performances and instances of simulation. It is, thus, the author’s belief that a broadly understood theatrology might become a discussion platform for researchers of various specialisations.
The premiere of Natręci by Józef Bielawski took place on 19 November 1765 at the Saxon Operalnia in Warsaw. The night on which the Actors of His Majesty’s Polish Comedies performed the comedy for the first time made history as marking the beginning of the National Theatre’s operation. The author of the article draws our attention to the fact that, contrary to widespread opinion, Natręci is not an adaptation of Les Fâcheux by Molière, even though the French playwright’s comedy served Bielawski as a source of inspiration. The second important finding is that Bielawski’s comedy is not a piece championing the Enlightenment. A thorough analysis reveals that Natręci is a satire on both the Sarmatians and the cosmopolitans. Yet the playwright’s sympathies are with the former. It may be assumed that the playwright added the paratexts referring to the Enlightenment programme of reforms on King Stanislaw August’s request. The article discusses in detail other pieces by Bielawski (including his second comedy, Dziwak), makes reference to the key French contexts (the oeuvres by Molière and Destouches), as well as to the history of the National Theatre and its repertories at the onset of its operation, and, finally, recounts the subsequent history of Les Fâcheux and Natręci on the Polish stages, including Piękna Lucynda by Marian Hemar (as a twentieth-century adaptation of Natręci).
Among the comic characters created by Molière, three are special: Scapin, Mascarille, and Sganarelle. The comedies that feature them found their way to Old Polish stages, being performed either in the original language or in Polish translation or adaptation. The oeuvre of Franciszka Urszula Radziwiłłowa contains Polish adaptations of three plays by the French playwright. Besides Les précieuses ridicules and Les amants magnifiques, there is also Le médecin malgré lui translated by the duchess into Polish as Gwałtem medyk. The comedy shows Sganarelle’s adventures as he is forced to play a doctor. Sganarelle appears in several plays by Molière. Inasmuch as in the first of them (Le médecin volant) we see a rather typical wily servant, he takes on more individual qualities in later comedies, becoming characteristically cowardly and imprudent. The edition of the Polish adaptation by Duchess Radziwiłłowa provides a chance to take a look at Sganarelle and other stock characters that can be regarded as Harlequin’s close relatives. Thus, the introduction to the edition focuses on these characters in Molière’s work, setting them side by side with some insights about Harlequin, who appears in the Duchess’s plays several times. Additionally, the introduction traces out the reception of Le médecin malgré lui in Poland in the first half of the 18th century and examines Radziwiłłowa’s translating techniques. The conclusion stresses the metatheatrical aspect of Sganarelle as an archetypal comedian.
The article brings an attempt at taking stock of and classifying Polish folk rituals related to yearly festivities as they may be accounted for from the point of view of theatrology. Its starting point is the author’s conception of theatrology that has not only the theatre but also other spectacles as its object, the conception that has been presented before. In accordance with this outlook, the folk rituals at issue are regarded as phenomena bearing characteristics of spectacles, performances and simulations. In effect, what emerges is an outline of a classification of the phenomena under discussion in relation to the varying degrees to which they display the elements of spectacularity, causality and simulation. It is also demonstrated that within the purview of theatrology may fall not only the phenomena perceived as spectacles and performances but also those in which the performative dimension is predominant. Finally, the reflection reveals an evolution of Polish folk rituals from their primitive causative character through spectacularity to simulations, which are only representations of old rituals.
The comedy Les Précieuses ridicules was one of the plays by Moliere that became popular in the Polish Commonwealth. Its first Polish adaptation, Komedyja paryska, is an anonymous work. It was composed at the beginning of the 18th century, and it reveals strong ties with the aristocratic stage. To aristocrats we owe three other old Polish translations of the comedy. A translation by Jan Ludwik Plater, Kosztowne duraczki albo Dziwaczki wymyslne, must have been completed before 1736. It is in many respects faithful to the original, but written in the style characteristic of sarmatism. Another translation, written by Marianna Potocka and titled Komedyja... o drozacych sie i wykwintnych bialoglowach, was an attempt to follow Moliere's text very closely. The baroque rendition by Franciszka Urszula Radziwillowa, on the other hand, is composed in verse. Context for these aristocratic translations is provided by an adaptation completed by Franciszek Bohomolec for Jesuit theatre (Kawalerowie modni). Analysis of these texts reveals varied translation techniques and the authors' knowledge, or lack thereof, concerning French culture. It also shows the translators' ability to adapt the play to the Polish circumstances. The old Polish writers who translated Les Précieuses ridicules perceived it as a satire on plebeians while failing, or not wanting, to notice the anti-aristocratic impact of Moliere's original piece. Despite of this, they managed to at least partially make use of the comical qualities of the French play, and noticed the motif of the theatricality of the world present in this comedy.
Kamila Baraniecka-Olszewska has written her book from the perspective of an ethnologist and anthropologist, and yet the work may be of great interest to theatre scholars as well. Ukrzyżowani (‘The Crucified’) is a monograph of Polish contemporary passion mysteries. It consists of four chapters; two of those introduce the reader to the issues concerning the study of passion mysteries and the category of performance in the study of religious culture. The other two analyse two dimensions of the mystery distinguished by the author, i.e., “participa-tum” (what is participated in) and “participans” (who participates). One shortcoming of the monograph is that the historical outline it contains is rather feeble (and some of the theses advanced there are disputable). Its strong point, on the other hand, is an excellent presentation of contemporary passion spectacles, understood as religious performances. The typology proposed by the author is interesting: parish passion mysteries, monastic passion mysteries, and municipal passion mysteries (perhaps including additionally: school passion mysteries, and theatre passion mysteries). Application of tools originating from performance studies has turned out to be very fruitful in relation to both the spectacle analysis and to the categories of experience. The au-thor utilised the conceptual instruments developed by Edward L. Schieffelin in an interesting way and harmonised research on the “participans” and “participatum” in an appealing fashion. Another merit of the monograph, obviously derived from ethnographic practice, is how it incorporates quotes from the participants. Such testimonies, due to their verbal authenticity, make the narrative much livelier. Additionally, the quotes introduce an innumerable number of perspectives (since each participant has a separate point of view). The author has contributed substantially to our knowledge of the passion mystery, ad-vanced the methodology and proved how interesting research bordering on ethnology and theatre studies can be.
The author presents the world of old Polish spectacles by combining performative and ethnoscenological perspectives. On the one hand, he makes use of his own definition of performance as a causal action while, on the other hand, attempting to distinguish the sphere of old Polish spectacles and pinpoint its unique features. In his analysis, he eschews any theatrocentric classification of performance phenomena. The middle part of the article discusses Julian Lewański’s research on old theatre and stresses the novel way in which he looked at various sides of stage creation using classifications derived from sociology. The last, and the longest, part is an attempt to combine the methodological assumptions discussed in the previous sections. Its title, “Power and Spectacle,” is a deliberate reference to the thought of Michel Foucault and Jon McKenzie. Adoption of such a point of view leads the author to distinguish the concepts of direct and indirect performatives, which may be exemplified by a public execution on the one hand, and the drowning of Marzanna on the other. At the same time the author proposes to replace the sociological classification put forward by Lewański with one that differentiates the kinds old Polish spectacles in relation to centres of power: the Church, secular authorities, and school situated on the borderland between them. The author, however, does not ignore the “prehistoric” sphere of spectacles functioning at the lower, or deeper, levels of culture that the aforementioned typology fails to grasp. The whole text is set into a frame of metaphors relating to old and modern visions of cosmos.
The introductory part of the essay brings an account of Jean Baudrillard’s theory of simulation with the aim of appropriating it for the theory of theatre. The author, referring to his previous reflexions on the sphere of spectacles, this time attempts to define it not only in reference to the categories of spectacularity and performativity but also to that of simulacrity. Thus, a triangular model is created. Close to its vertices, phenomena that may be defined through one of the said categories can be located; along the triangle’s edges phenomena that need to be described in reference to two such categories would be situated; and finally, within its plane, one could place phenomena defined by all three categories. The phenomenon of theatre, as based on the combination of spectacularity, causal performativity and simulation, needs to be located in the centre of the diagram. The second part of the essay presents an analysis of The Tempest by Shakespeare and applies the conceptual tools described above. The analysis takes into account that the comedy, charged with a strong meta-theatre element, is located at the interpretational mezzanine of sorts and reveals its full meaning only through staging. Only then do its spectacular and performative aspects appear in sharp light, e.g. when actors as characters watch other actors (spectacularity), or when Prospero acts as a performer. The proposed reading of The Tempest, however, puts special emphasis on the problem of simulacra. As can be seen, their structure in Shakespeare’s work is quite peculiar (the title tempest): they are embedded in the meta-theatrical tradition (the clothes that simulate the change of status of their new wearers) and, significantly, appear as metaphors in other works by the Stratford playwright (the motif of ivy). It is easy to see that the presence of simulacra in the world portrayed in The Tempest allows the characters to free themselves from the appearances. The same chance is offered to the readers of the comedy and to the audience of the play as well.
The article discusses the beginnings of Molière’s reception in Poland. The Paris premiere of Sganarelle ou Le Cocu imaginaire on 28 May 1660 serves as a starting point for the discussion. The performance of the same comedy in Warsaw on 5 March 1669 is the first instance of Molière’s work being performed in Poland. It was put on at Jan Andrzej Morsztyn’s palace to honour the departure of the former king of Poland John Casimir Vasa. Another royal couple, King John III Sobieski and Marie Casimire, can be credited with putting on Les fourberies de Scapin (Cracow, 12 April 1676), L’École des femmes and L’Amour médecin (Jaworów, June 1684). Organisers of the Jaworów shows even mentioned Molière by name. Thanks to Rafał Leszczyński, Polish king Stanislav’s father, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme was staged during the Carnival of 1687, probably in Leszno. While the four previous shows were performed in French, it is not clear whether it was so in the case of the last one. Certainly, however, a theatre programme that has survived to our times contains first attempts at rendering the comedy in Polish. While discussing the reception of Molière in Old Poland the author takes the opportunity to mention Polish translations and productions of Jean Racine’s tragedies and Pierre Corneille’s and Urbain Chevreau’s tragicomedies of the period. One important finding concerns the second play staged at the event organised by Morsztyn in 1669. A piece titled Le Docteur de verre performed there was, without doubt, a fragment of La comédie sans comédie by Philippe Quinault.