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EN
The faustian motif is one of the most important themes of European literature. The 16th-century German alchemist and magician is asymbol of afree and independent human being, obsessed by the idea of transgressing all the boundaries in order to gain absolute knowledge. Highly ambiguous and semantically loaded, the Faustian figure also appears in the works of many Russian writers, such as Vasily Zhukovsky, Alexander Pushkin, Valery Bryusov and Leonid Andreyev; it is also present in the theory of God-Building propounded by Maxim Gorky and Anatoly Lunacharsky. In his play Faust and the City, Lunacharsky proposed an interpretative paradigm of the faustian myth that was implemented in the Russian literature of the 1920s–1930s. This paradigm offered areading of Faustian dilemmas in the context of anew post-revolutionary epoch, emphasizing the socio-ideological dimension of the aspect of transcendence. The reinterpretation of the German writer’s theme of perennial youth, good and evil, and the limits of human freedom found its artistic reflection in the works of such outstanding writers of the 1920–1930s as Mikhail Bulgakov, Yury Olesha, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Mikhail Zoshchenko, Daniil Kharms, Vladimir Mayakovsky and Osip Mandelstam.Yearning for eternal youth, for transgressing temporal and spatial borders and achieving happiness in earthly life testifies to humans’ fear of old age and death. In the works of the Russian writers mentioned above the faustian motif can be understood not only as an expression of moral and ideological dilemmas but first and foremost as an attempt to escape from loneliness and social alienation in the situation of ideological pressure.
RU
Фауст — это метафора свободного и независимого существа, одержимого идеей перешагнуть всевозможные границы с целью достижения абсолютного познания. Фаустовский мотив — один из важнейших в европейской литературе, также появляется в творчестве русских писателей: Василия Жуковского, Александра Пушкина, Валерия Брюсова, Леонида Андреева. Можно его также обнаружить в философии богостроительства Максима Горького и Анатолия Луначарского. В своей драме Фауст и город Луначарский дал образец интерпретации фаустовского мотива, который появляется затем в русской литературе 20-х и 30-х годов XX века. Он рассматривается нами в контексте новой послереволюционной эпохи, для которой трансцендентность приобретает социально-идеологическое толкoвание. Реинтерпретация предпринятой Гете темы вечной молодости, познания добра и зла, границ человеческой свободы, нашла художественное воплощение в творчестве Михаила Булгакова, Юрия Олеши, Евгения Замятина, Михаиля Зощенко, Владимира Маяковского, Осипа Мандельштама. Тоска по вечной молодости и достижению счастья на земле олицетворяет извечный страх человека перед старостью и смертью. Фаустовский мотив можно толковать как выражение этических и мировоззренческих дилемм вышеупомянутых писателей, но прежде всего как попытку бегства от одиночества в условиях идеологического давления.
EN
Melancholy is usually associated with the feeling of satiety, fatigue, suffering, and longing for things lost. However, this particular kind of sensibility can also be perceived as an embodiment of ahigher intellect, asource of inspiration, and ahealing power. Melancholy accompanied Zoshchenko all his life. The writer gave it different names but always saw it as adisease which he, as aman and awriter, had to fight. The time when Zoshchenko lived and created his works was not favourable for his concentration on the analysis of his psychological state. The epoch of radical changes in ethical and aesthetic values, of belittling the role of the individual and glorifying the group required different personality traits and different protagonists who should be strong, healthy and unreflective. For Zoshchenko, the way to achieve mental health lay in an attempt to combine the scientific explanation of the causes of melancholy and acultural dialogue on the level of cultural signs. The writer’s “I” is represented in his works by areal, mentally disturbed and highly sensitive artist as well as his doubles: professor Volosatov in Youth Restored, the host of “superfluous men” in Sentimental Tales, Michel Sinyagin, the narrator in Before Sunrise and The Blue Book. They are all contrasted to strong, physically and psychically healthy people, who become the object of their envy. Melancholy, which Zoshchenko tried to cope with all his life, became astimulus for his writing, asoul-saving force, adefense mechanism, and finally — asource of self-knowledge and inner development.
EN
Nadezhda Mandelstam’s Hope Against Hope: a Memoir must be regarded as one of the most important accounts of the gradual subjugation of Russian literature in Stalin’s Soviet Union. The purpose of my article is to examine the literary devices employed by the author in her attempt to describe her traumatic experiences, as well as the strategies she uses in order to ‘tame the past’ at a more personal, generational, and historical plan (concerning such experiences as loneliness, entrapment, solitude, homelessness, suffering, fear, and death). Her memoir enables her to relieve the trauma caused by the tragic fate of her husband, the poet Osip Mandelstam, as well as to recreate the final years of his life and work. In a broader context, the book offers thoughts and insights into the moral state of humanity. Together with such novels as Vasily Grossman’s Everything Flows…, Lydia Chukovskaya’s Sofia Petrovna, and Anna Akhmatova’s Requiem, Nadezhda Mandelstam’s writings are a shattering account of life in a totalitarian regime, marked by an ideologically driven process of distorting and erasing memory. She identified creative process not only with the struggle to keep her husband’s name alive but also with a moral obligation to bear witness to the inhumanity of her time.
RU
Воспоминания Надежды Мандель­штам — это одно из самых выдающихся свидетельств процесса порабощения русской литера­туры в период сталинского террора. Целью статьи является анализ механизмов репрезентации личного травматического опыта Надежды Мандельштам, а также применяемых стратегий ос­ваивания прошлого в личном, общественном и историческом контекстах (одиночество, от­чужденность, бездомность, страдание, страх, смерть). Рядом с такими произведениями как Все течет... Василия Гроссмана, Софья Петровна Лидии Чуковской, Реквием Анны Ахматовой, Воспоминания Надежды Мандельштам являются потрясающей записью гибели русской интел­лигенции, а также идеологически управляемого процесса искажения и стирания памяти о про­шлом. Творческий процесс Надежда Мандельштам отождествляет с борьбой за память о поэте Осипе Мандельштаме, его поэтическом наследии, но также с моральной ответсвенностью дать свидетельство времени.
EN
The carnivalesque of the death in the Russian literature of the 1930s Russian literature in the 30s of the 20th century developed within the totalitarian sphere, recording and mirroring the horror of the Stalinist reality. The impossibility of a direct expression of one’s own pain and grieving over death which was often associated with a sudden disappearance and a necessity to erase the beloved from one’s memory guided the artists’ attention towards new forms of expression. The works which represent a variety of genres and styles, such as Nikolai Erdman’s drama The Suicide, Daniil Kharms’s novel The Old Woman, as well as The Blue Book of Mikhail Zoshchenko, can be seen as examples of the use of carnivalesque which I understand as a defence strategy towards the omnipresent experience of death. I analysed the following features of carnivalesque: satire, grotesque, “black humour”, absurd, laughter, which are used in the above mentioned works.
RU
Карнавализация смерти в русской литературе30-х годов XX века Во многих произведениях русской литературы 30-х годов XX века, возникших вне эстетики соцреализма, кошмар отождествляется с тоталитарной действительностью. Невозможность непосредственно выразить страдание и оплакать смерть близких направляла писателей к поискам новых форм их передачи. Такие отличающиеся друг от друга по жанровым и стилистическим особенностям произведения, как драма Самоубийца Николая Эрдмана, повесть Старуха Даниила Хармса, а также Голубая книга Михаила Зощенко, являются примерами карнавализации, которая воспринимается как защитная стратегия по отношению к смерти. В данной статье анализу подвергаются следующие приемы карнавализации: сатира, гротеск, черный юмор, абсурд и смех, характерные для выше упомянутых произведений.
PL
“ONE NAME, ONE LIFE, ONE SIGN”.RESTORING THE MEMORY OF THE GREAT TERROR (1937–1938)S u m m a r yThe article deals with current forms of commemorating the victims of Stalin’s persecutionsin the spatial landscape of Moscow, which is instrumental in informingRussia’s sense of identity. The cemeteries, museums, squares, monuments, and plaquesinscribed into the architectural cityscape of Russia’s capital are manifestationsof a relationship between place and the man who experiences it, and, in the widercontext, between authorities, society, and the individual. Institutions such as GULAGHistory State Museum, The Sakharov Center, and the International MemorialSociety have all greatly contributed to honouring the victims of the Great Terror andkeeping their memory alive. From among numerous activities they engage in thememorial projects called “Material Evidence”, “Topography of Terror”, and “Returnof the Names” are particularly noteworthy.
PL
Piękny człowiek Michaiła Zoszczenki. Wobec socrealistycznej kategorii wzniosłości
EN
Aurelia Kotkiewicz’s article is devoted to the tragic story of Carola Neher’s life. Carola Neher was an extraordinary German actress and a close associate of Bertolt Brecht. In the 1930s, she escaped from the Nazi regime to the Soviet Union, there to become one of the victims of the Great Terror. The fate of Carola Neher was the inspiration for an exhibition put up by the International Memorial Society in 2017 called “Carola Neher’s Theater of Life” and for the theatrical spectacle Memoria, staged by the Меyerhold Center in Moscow and directed by Anastasia Patlai.
RU
Статья посвящена трагической судьбе Каролы Неер, выдающейся немецкой актрисы, сотрудницы Бертольта Брехта. В 30-е годы прошлого века Неер выехала из нацистской Германии в Советский Союз. Через несколько лет она стала одной из жертв Большого террора. Судьба актрисы легла в основу выставки «Театр жизни Каролы Неер», представленной Международным «Мемориалом» в 2017 году, а также пьесы Memoria, поставленной Анастасией Патлай в Центре им. Мейерхольда в Москве.
PL
Artykuł jest poświęcony tragicznej historii życia Caroli Neher - wybitnej aktorki niemieckiej, bliskiej współpracowniczki Bertolta Brechta. W latach 30. uciekła ona z nazistowskich Niemiec do Związku Radzieckiego i stała się jedną z ofiar Wielkiego Terroru. Losy artystki posłużyły jako temat wystawy zorganizowanej przez Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie „Memoriał” w 2017 roku oraz spektaklu teatralnego Memoria, wystawionego przez Centrum im. Меyerholda w Moskwie i wyreżyserowanego przez Anastasiję Patłaj.
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2018
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vol. 49
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issue 3
169-178
EN
The article examines the notion of bovarism which can be seen in the work of the most outstanding Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century, for example Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Anton Chekhov. It seems that the source of bovaristic attitude, which is culturally, socially and psychologically motivated, is the extremity of the Russian character prone to self-sacrifice, offering and suffering, as well as cruelty and sadism. A Russian variant of bovarism is boredom and melancholy.
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