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EN
The Old Testament prohibition of consuming blood (Lev. 17:10–14) was dictated by the observation of the phenomenon of blood loss as a cause of death of a human being. Therefore, blood was considered to have life-giving power, the power of God Himself. Blood flowing in the veins of every creature was considered to be God’s property and was not allowed to be consumed, but it had to be poured out on the ground. In New Testament times, this prohibition was relativized, recommending only its preservation (Acts 15:28–29). Since there are also religious groups today that demand that we refrain from the consumption of blood, we decided to study the issue based on the texts of the Old and New Testament, which contain information about blood and its symbolism, as well as the prohibition of its consumption. The methods of contextual analysis and historical-critical analysis were applied. As a result of these studies, it turned out that blood, especially in the Old Testament texts, has very extensive symbolism, which is why one can speak of the firstborn’s blood, substitute blood, blood of the Covenant. Blood also played a special role in the worship of Israel, especially in sacrificial offerings. This meaning is also found in the New Testament: “without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins” (Heb. 9:22). In the Old Testament, there are a number of texts in which the prohibition of consumption of blood has been imposed (see Gen. 9:4; Lev. 3:17; 7:26–27; Deut. 12:23), although refraining from eating meat in which blood would still be found is not always explicitlly mentioned. The most comprehensive information on this subject, along with the justification of the prohibition, is included in Leviticus 17:10–14. Such prohibitions resulted in a specific lifestyle, and even slaughtering of animals, which was the subject of a large-scale social discussion. We ask ourselves the question: Does this prohibition apply to today’s Hebrews, Christians, or other social groups for whom the Bible is a peculiar norm of conduct? While the positive answer undoubtedly concerns the followers of Judaism, the issue of Christians is not so obvious. This is indicated by the so-called Jerusalem Council: “you abstain from what has been sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from what has been strangled, and from sexual immorality. If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well. Farewell” (Acts 15:28–29). Three facts are of crucial importance here. First, these clauses were disciplinary and not doctrinal. Second, they had limited territorial coverage (see Acts 15:23). Third, one sentence is of particular significance in this context: “If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well” (Acts 15:29), which indicates this was not a warrant for salvation, but a recommendation to facilitate the faithful’s life in mutual consent in a church made up of Christians of Jewish and pagan origin.
PL
In my opinion there are a few themes which succeeded in receiving so many literary, artistic and even scientific analysis as Grail. A look at this reality is full of controversy and extremes. Everything depends on the point from which the reality is observed. Full of mystery tales of medieval knights became the reason of the attentive looking at the most important romantic novels of Grail. In these texts, it appears in various forms, hence came the question: What was the Grail? The most common answers are: 1) a container for a stained with blood, severed head; 2) a wide and fairly deep jeweled plate; 3) the dish of the Last Supper; 4) an object made of difficult to define material; 5) a beautifully decorated dish in the shape of the cup; 6) a cup filled with blood of the Savior; 7) a small stone. As a result of an error Grail was also called Sankgreal. So as we see among many answers to this question, there are very extreme opinions. They are represented by the work of two women: Jessie L. Weston from the early twentieth century and Janice Bennett written a few years ago. All these searches lead to two symbols: “the cup (of wine)” and “blood”. The reality, which we try to touch in this study appeared to us in a very complex form, both in terms of texts, which should have been analyzed as well as the source of the theme of Grail. Studies may be very different, and the results difficult to predict. However, the themes of wine and blood present in the descriptions of institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper, became the guides in the search. It seems that something had to decide on the uniqueness of the dish that has focused an interest of so many literary, artistic and scientific works. In my opinion it was the wine which has been transformed by the Savior into His blood. This reality can be seen as a literary theme shared by many romantic novels of Grail. It could also be seen as the cult of relics of the Savior, as in the history of the Chalice of Valencia Cathedral. Invariably, however, it is still the extremely fascinating subject and let it remain.
PL
The question stated in the title refers primarily to the awareness that there were indeed inspired writings, such as the First Letter to the Corinthians (cf. 1Cor 5:9), which is not even preserved in the oldest codes. To resolve this question you first need to provide answers to the following questions: What is the inspiration? How was the canon of the inspired books shaped? What is the Gospel and what is the difference between canonical and apocryphal gospels? There are important elements related to the inspiration that are meaningful to the discussed issues. Firstly, the revelation ended with the death of the last apostle. Secondly, the early Church became the norm of faith for the future generations. Thirdly, writing (especially letters) were written for a specific purpose. In the fourth place, the authorship of the Bible does not affect their inspired style. In the fifth place, the inspired books have a certain style and language that govern the rights of the times in which they arose. Taking into account all these elements we cannot deny the theoretical possibility of the discovery of the „disappeared” inspired writings, but an integral understanding of the revelation allows us to think of their possible finding that does not change in any way the content of revelation. In relation to the canon of the sacred books it seems to be a particularly important fact recalled by Benedict XVI in the Apostolic Exhortation Verbum Domini of inspiration, which was and is a deposit which the Church has received from God. This argument allows us to conclude that the Church, as the primary custodian of inspiration, provides comprehensive nature of revelation. Even if there was discovered some hitherto unknown letter, with all certainty inspired, it would not add anything new to the revelation that God had already revealed before. In relation to the gospel, we notice that there is only one, unchanged Gospel, and its content is the cross and resurrection of Christ (1Cor 15:3-5), that is the coming of the kingdom of God (Mark 1:14-15). In the canon of the New Testament books of the Bible there are four books, which we can define the literary genre of the concept of the gospel (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John). There are not, however, four separate versions of the message of the Good News but rather a slightly different view of the same reality of coming of the kingdom of God and its fulfillment in the cross of Christ and His resurrection. Such content cannot be found in the apocryphal gospels. There is therefore no basis for concern that it could come to the discovery of some sort of a letter that would change the way of looking at the reality of Jesus Christ and His art of saving.
PL
God knows the heart of man examining his emotions, feelings, moods, passions, thoughts, the will of the believer, and even his conscience (Rom 8:27). The only proper human response is to take such action regarding the rights granted to him by God as to gain admiration in his eyes. Metaphor of this attitude is the “circumcision of the heart” (Rom 2:28-29), which opposes both circumcised only the body and the heart that is uncircumcised. Showing the positive response of people to the Gospel preached to them, the Apostle remains grateful to the Romans for the fact that they accepted it and became totally obedient. This is what he means when he writes that they became “obedient from the heart” (Rom 6:17). Even such an attitude does not guarantee the avoidance of doubt, which is why the Apostle warned the recipients of his letter before thinking and issuing judgments on a basis other than faith in Jesus Christ (Rom 10:6-7). This state is due to the fact that already in the hearts of the Gentiles the law had been inscribed that makes proper functioning of conscience (Rom 2:15). The situation becomes even more evident with the adoption of faith in Jesus Christ, for then the love of God was poured out in the hearts of believers (Rom 5:5). This reality, however, is not a constant and static, because it is associated with the Word which is proclaimed, and that is on the lips and in the heart of the Christian (Rom 10:8). To allow this to come to fruition faith must gain a dual dimension: the outer expressed with lips and internal adoption in the heart (Rom 10:9-10). But man can respond negatively to gifts offered him by God. Wandering in their thinking he indulges in idolatry, and as a consequence his heart plunges into darkness (Rom 1:21). For Paul wandering in thinking and bad behavior is a manifestation of God’s wrath. Only the adoption of the light of Gospel can deliver him from such a state. But if man allows his heart to donate to the lusts (Rom 1:24), they become prey to all kinds of ritual impurity, cultic and sexual abuse. Especially the latter contributes to its degradation. The man confirmed as unable to understand the change of mindset, the conversion results in the accumulation of anger in the day of judgment (Rom 2:5-6), in place of good works. Such a degraded man does not serve Christ, but only their own lusts. And by far deceives those who have not experienced evil (Rom 16:18). So it is impossible for a perverse heart not to bring negative consequences to other people. Paul used interesting references to his heart (hē kardia mou, hē emē kardia) writing about his great desire for the salvation of his countrymen. He saw clearly the danger of exclusion of Israel as a result of their rejection of the Gospel. Therefore, first he wrote about his great sorrow and unceasing pain (Rom 9:1-2), and then with great desire and prayers for their salvation (Rom 10:1).
EN
The oracles against foreign nations in the Book of Zephaniah (Zeph2:4-15) were directed against the Philistines, the Ammonites, the Moabites,the Egyptians and against the Assyrians. Their order is not quite clear,challenging, and wonder if it is really explicable to the very end.The way the oracle is presented against the Philistines (Zeph 2:4-7) isbased on the multitude of names of places, which belonged to this part ofPalestine. The words directed against them “I will destroy you until noinhabitant is left” (Zeph 2:5), force the Judeans to reflect on their behavior,which could lead on to their annihilation, the way the foreign nations willbe destroyed at this moment. The attrition of the Philistines is to functionas a warning for the Judeans against the imminent and awaited punishment,unless they change their conduct.The oracles against the Moabites and the Ammonites (2:8-11) bewilderin two aspects. First of all, the issue concerns the determination of kōl ʼijjêhaggôjim (Zeph 2:11), which can either refer to all nations in general, or onlyto those nations which are hostile towards the Israel. In the direct, precedingcontext, Zephaniah was writing about the victory of JHWH over pagangods (v. 11a); Thus, one may suppose that the representatives of even theremotest corners of the earth will pay homage to JHWH. Secondly, what issurprising is the reverse order, the reversal of the usual order in the oraclesagainst the nations, in which the punishment is presented as first and then itsjustification. Whereas, Zephaniah starts with justification (v. 8 and 10), andlater mentions the punishment (v. 9 and 11a). Why was the oracle constructedin this specific way by the prophet? First of all, it may have constitutedan emphasis which Zephaniah uses to stress the cause (justification) ofthe punishment imposed on the Moabites and the Ammonites. However,attention must also be drawn to w. 11b, which contains eschatologicalannouncement of the universal and widespread cult of JHWH. Thus, theexpression of the oracle was meant to lead to eschatological proclamation,in an climactic construction.The words directed against Egypt (Zeph 2:12) are so cursory that somescholars regard them as part of the oracle against Assyria. Yet, it seemsthat such a connection would be completely unjustifiable, merely becauseof the fact that the punishment the Nubians and the Assyrians will face willbe different, not to mention the fact that the empires of Assyria and Egypt were immemorial enemies of Israel, but different, though. The sword takenout against Egypt (Zeph 2:12) undoubtedly, constitutes a kind of glancingreference to the scene which took place at the gates of Jericho, when Joshuaencountered the Angel of God with an unsheathed sword (Jos 5:13).The description of extermination and destruction of Assyria (Zeph2:13-14) is comprehensive and extensive because the oracles against foreignnations in the Book of Zephaniah reach their climax there. Justification inthis case seems to be perfunctory, though (v. 15) especially considering theimmensity of the punishment.
EN
The multiplicity of the use of both terms, the Hebrew (bajit) and the Greek (ho oikos) also translates into a multiplicity of meanings. The primary meaning is of course its material importance, which describes a place of residence, to which man returns after a special experience, as Zacharias (Lk 1:23), the healed paralytic (Lk 5:24), the messengers of the centurion Cornelius (Lk 7:10), or the possessed, freed from the evil spirit (Lk 8:39). An example of the extension of the meaning of the word “home” is a metaphorical sense of Luke’s work in two volumes – The Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. The concept analysed by us he refers to all members of the family. It is the residents of the house who are the first recipients of the Gospel preached by the disciples (Lk 10:5), whose acceptance or rejection may result in a split in one house (Lk 12:52). Conversion always begins from the head of the family, its faith determines getting baptised by all members of the household (Acts 10:2, 11:14, 18:8) Particularly important meaning of the metaphor concerns home as the human body. Saint Paul developed this metaphor showing Church as the Body of Christ (Lk 11:24). We have paid particular attention to the importance of the Old Testament concept of bajit. Both the Tent of Meeting (Ex 25:8) and the Temple of Jerusalem (1 Kings 8:27) were called the House of God. God chose these places as a house for himself. However, his presence among the people does not have neither magical nor automatic consequence. God Himself, through the prophet observes: „Heavens is my throne, and the earth is a footstool for my feet. What house do you want to build for me and what place will you give me as a dwelling?” (Is 66:1). The New Testament develops even more the spiritual importance of the dwelling. We can see this especially in the parable about the host who went on a journey and left the running of his house to his servants (Mark 13:34-35). This house is also home to all its residents – members of God’s family (Eph 2:19-20). The church is the house of God, which must be properly ruled, hence the instruction that Paul addressed to Timothy (1 Tim 3:15). Every home on earth could become the House of God, if the Eucharist was being celebrated there (Acts 2:46). The early Christians clearly distinguished between the place of prayer (the Temple of Jerusalem ) from the place of celebration of the Eucharist (the house of Christians).
Verbum Vitae
|
2007
|
vol. 11
143-157
PL
Generalmente le risposte alle difficolta riguardanti la fede si trovavano nei testi di carattere liturgico. Questo vuol dire che le piu importanti formulazioni che riguardano sia il contenuto sia uso pratico delle verita di fede si poteva trovare in questo genere di testi: specialmente negli inni e nei cantici. Uno di questi testi (2 T m 2, 11-13) e l'ogetto della nostra analisi. In questo inno accanto a un messaggio pieno di gioia (la fedelta di Gesu alle promesse date a ciascuno dei credenti) incontriamo anche un ammonimento di non esporsi al pericolo di abbandonare la vera dottrina (v. 12b-13b). Nel contesto di 1 Tm 1,16 troviamo pero il messaggio pieno di speranza: Se rimaniamo fedeli accanto a Lui, anche Lui non ci potra rinnegare, perche inquesto caso come se rinnegasse se stesso.
Verbum Vitae
|
2006
|
vol. 9
105-120
PL
The Pastoral Letters in a particular way undoubtedly reflect the theology resulting from the instructions concerning Church life. In the discussed texts, we can observe a two or even a three-level understanding or the concept of he elpis - hope. On the one band, the promise of God Himself (Tt 1,2) is presented as a basis for hope, as also the person of Jesus Christ (1 Tm 1,1). On the other band, it is actually Christ w ho is the subject of Christian hope (comp. 1 Tm 1,1). This hope, however, does not limit itself to indicating its basis or subject matter. It is closely related to the saving work of God. and hecomes the essence of the life of the first Christian community - the apostolic Church (comp. Tt 2,11-13; 3,1-3).
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Verbum Vitae
|
2008
|
vol. 14
153-172
PL
Le Lettere Pastorali, come risulta gia dal titolo, contengono un certo numero delie istruzioni che riguardano la vita delle comunita ecclesiastiche a Efeso e sull'isola di Creta. Tra questi indizi troviamo anche quelli che riguardano il comportamento verso le autorita civili (l Tm 2,2; Tt 3,1). Queste devono essere rispettate ma sotto la condizione di compiere il loro dovere, cioe garantiscono la convivenza pacifica di tutti i cittadini. La chiesa primitiva fu consapevole del funzionamento delle istituzioni dello stato, tra questi la schiavitu (cf. Tt 2,9-10; 1 Tm 6, 1-2). In testi soprannominati non abbiamo trovato l'accentazione di quel fatto, ma soltanto le indicazioni per i cristiani che anche nello stato di schiavitu devono annunziare al mondoGesu Cristo. Un altro tema che riguarda il potere e il comportamento nel raduno dei cristiani. Per questa volta si tratta del potere d'insegnare.Dall'analisi di 1 Tm 2,11-14 risulta che ił comportamento della donna che ascolta, impara e poi parla, e "un atteggiamento tipico" del discepolo. Invece il comportamento del uomo che insegna e guida la comunita, e ''un atteggiamento tipico" del maestro. Tutto questo ha un collegamento stretto con Unico Sovrano( cf. 1 Tm 6, 15-16) e con il Suo regno (2 Tm 4,2.18) che raggiungera la pienezza la fine dei tempi.
Verbum Vitae
|
2010
|
vol. 18
123-140
PL
W różnych okolicznościach człowiek doświadcza konieczności przebaczania drugiemu. Łatwiej jest przeprowadzić precyzyjny wykład na temat przebaczenia w listach św. Pawła, a nawet dać konkretne wskazówki co do praktykowania tej cnoty, niż ją rzeczywiście realizować. Apostoł Narodów nie tylko przedstawił przebaczenie od strony teoretycznej, teologicznej, lecz również ukazał, jak dalece przebaczenie wiąże się ze zbawczym planem Boga. Mało tego, na własnym przykładzie pokazał, jak należy podjąć dzieło przebaczenia nawet wobec tak dotkliwych zniewag jak te, które spotkały go w Koryncie (2 Kor 2,7.10). Z naszej analizy wynika, że fundamentem przebaczenia jest udział w zbawczym dziele Chrystusa. Jest to łaskawy dar Boga. Tak została dana obietnica Abrahamowi (Ga 3,18), tak również sam Chrystus otrzymał imię, które dotąd było domeną Boga (Flp 2,9), takim też ostatecznym dopełnieniem Bożego planu zbawienia była śmierć Jezusa Chrystusa, w której zostało nam darowane wszystko (Rz 8,32). Chrześcijanin ma udział w dziele Chrystusa przez chrzest, ale również przez szczególne dary, którymi ma służyć wspólnocie Kościoła – charyzmaty (1Kor 2,12). Wśród najważniejszych darów apostoł wylicza wiarę i cierpienie (Flp 1,29), które ma przynosić korzyść rozprzestrzenianiu się Ewangelii i rozwojowi Kościoła. Łaska darowana wszystkim wierzącym w Chrystusa przez chrzest, który daje im udział w Jego śmierci i zmartwychwstaniu (Kol 2,13-14), owocuje udzieleniem im szczególnej łaski przebaczenia ze strony Chrystusa (Kol 3,13), choć jest to dzieło Osób Trójcy Świętej (Ef 4,30.32). Fakt ten niesie ze sobą zobowiązania dla wierzących – unikanie wad (Ef 4,31), a wypełnianie cnót (Kol 3,12; Ef 4,32). Wszystko zaś konkretyzuje się w bardzo jasnym działaniu, do którego wzywa apostoł: „Wybaczajcie sobie” (charidzomenoi heautois). Prawdziwe przebaczenie realizowane w życiu codziennym polega przede wszystkim na tym, żeby być jego podmiotem, a więc po prostu przebaczać. Brak tej czynności może pozostawiać przestrzeń do działania dla szatana (2 Kor 2,7.10). Należy jednak także prosić o przebaczenie, a więc stawać się przedmiotem przebaczenia. Jesteśmy nim obdarowywani przez innych chrześcijan (2 Kor 12,13).
Verbum Vitae
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2009
|
vol. 15
229-247
PL
San Paolo per descrivere la risurrezione dai morti di Gesù usa soprattutto il verbo “egeiro”. Raramente adopera il sostantivo “he anastasis”. Questo pero non vale per gl' inni che spesso non furono scritti dall’Apostolo stesso. Abbiamo notato che nei testi provenienti dalla liturgia battesimale (Rom 1,3-4; Ef 5,14) si usa i termini della stessa radice: “anistemi” e “he anastasis”. Mentre “egeiro” troviamo solo in Ef 1,17-23. Nell’inno Col 1,15-20 l’Apostolo ha usato la formula descrittiva per collegare la risurrezione dai morti di Gesù Cristo e quella universale: “il primogenito di coloro che risuscitano dai morti”- “prototokos ek ton nekron” (Col l,18b). Paolo usa anche le immagini metaforiche e della risurrezione. Lo fa usando i termini “esaltare oltremodo” – “hyperypsoo” (Fil 2,9) o “elevare” – “analambano” (1 Tm 3,16). Da questo ricco linguaggio scaturisce l'immagine della risurrezione di Cristo come l’opera di Dio (Rom 1,3-4), o piuttosto l’opera della potenza di Dio (Ef 1,17-23). Gesù è proprio colui che precede tutti i credenti nel ritornare alla vita – “il primogenito di coloro che risuscitano dai morti” (Col 1,15-20). Questa realtà e cosi ricca che può essere descritta come “l’esaltazione oltremodo” (Fil 2,6-11) del Figlio o addirittura “l’elevazione in gloria” (1 Tm 3,16). Tutte e due le espressioni nel senso teologico racchiudono la risurrezione, l’ascensione e il prendere il posto alla destra del Padre (cf. Att 2,33; 5,31; Rom 1,3-4; Ef 4,9-10; Col 3,1). La risurrezione dei morti acquista un nuovo significato nel contesto della liturgia battesimale (cf. Ef 2,1.5-6; Col 2,13). La partecipazione alla resurrezione di Cristo è possibile grazie al sacramento del battesimo (Ef 5,14) che non solo libera dal peccato originale ma anche permette di partecipare alla grazia di Dio.
DE
Der Band enthält die Abstracts ausschließlich in englischer Sprache.
EN
The paper is an attempt to verify empirically a holistic multimodal approach to pronunciation training developed by Szpyra-Kozłowska (2015). It reports a phonodidactic experiment carried out with two groups of Polish secondary school intermediate learners of English and demonstrates that the tested procedure is both more effective that the traditional listen-and-repeat tasks and more attractive to the participants, as shown in a post-test questionnaire study.Artykuł jest próbą empirycznej weryfikacji holistycznego multimodalnego podejścia do treningu fonetycznego, zaproponowanego przez Szpyrę-Kozłowską (2015). Autorzy relacjonują przeprowadzony przez nich eksperyment fonodydaktyczny z udziałem dwóch grup polskich uczniów na średniozaawansowanym poziomie angielszczyzny i wykazują, że zastosowana metoda jest zarówno bardziej efektywna niż tradycyjne ćwiczenia oparte na imitacji wzorca fonetycznego, jak również bardziej atrakcyjna dla uczniów, co wykazała przeprowadzona wśród nich ankieta.
FR
Le numéro contient uniquement les résumés en anglais.
RU
Том содержит аннотацию на английском языке.
EN
The paper addresses a very important aspect of Polish-accented English, namely the issue of frequent phonetic errors made by Polish learners which do not result from their inability to produce foreign sounds correctly, but which stem from various interference factors (e.g foreign pronounced as [fo’rejn]). Following Szpyra-Kozłowska’s (in press a) claims that such errors hinder successful communication far more than other segmental and suprasegmental inaccuracies and should thus be treated as a top pedagogical priority, what is suggested is a shift in phonetic instruction from the focus on the production of sounds and prosodies to the focus on the pronunciation of problematic words. Our major goal is to demonstrate how this proposal can be implemented in the language classroom. The authors present a report on the experiment in which a group of 25 Polish secondary school pupils has undergone a special training in the pronunciation of 50 commonly mispronounced words with the use of special, teacher-designed materials. The effectiveness of the employed procedure as well as the pupils’ reactions to it are examined and pedagogical conclusions are drawn.
EN
The paper addresses a very important aspect of Polish-accented English, namely the issue of frequent phonetic errors made by Polish learners which do not result from their inability to produce foreign sounds correctly, but which stem from various interference factors (e.g foreign pronounced as [fo'rejn]). Following Szpyra-Kozłowska's (in press a) claims that such errors hinder successful communication far more than other segmental and suprasegmental inaccuracies and should thus be treated as a top pedagogical priority, what is suggested is a shift in phonetic instruction from the focus on the production of sounds and prosodies to the focus on the pronunciation of problematic words. Our major goal is to demonstrate how this proposal can be implemented in the language classroom.The authors present a report on the experiment in which a group of 25 Polish secondary school pupils has undergone a special training in the pronunciation of 50 commonly mispronounced words with the use of special, teacher-designed materials. The effectiveness of the employed procedure as well as the pupils' reactions to it are examined and pedagogical conclusions are drawn.
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