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Język jako system znaków

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EN
We have to deal with numerous signs in everyday life, given us both by the nature – as, for example, clouds being a sign of upcoming rain, and also traditional, conventional signs and created by ourselves for better communication. A sign is a perceptible arrangement of things or a phenomenon caused by someone else for the reason that some set expression or formed customary rules govern combining a definite type of thoughts with this arrangement of things or the phenomenon.
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Pojęcie nazwy oraz funktora

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Syntactic categories fulfil different roles in constructing compound expressions. Sentences and names, and also some functors are syntactic categories. Sentences are expressions which state that something is this way and not another. Therefore, in the logical sense, a sentence is a following statement: “The earth is a planet”. Sentences (expressions) are intensional when they do not deserve a feature of extensionality. There can be sentences saying about conditions of the mind, causal or time relationships etc. Therefore, they are intensional because their logical value (i.e. truth or falsity) depends not only on component elements (e.g. from truth / falsity of clauses of the compound sentence), but also on different factors. Between the modules of this expression (e.g. between the component sentences of the compound sentence) some more different relations occur. These sentences get in relationships between them, e.g. in the cause and effect relationship - as a logical implication relation. Therefore, the logical value of these sentences goes beyond simple logical deductions, and according to some theories goes beyond logic itself.
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Inference, or simple reasoning, is a thought process, a certain pattern application during which on the basis of acknowledging the truth of certain sentences being premises to infer the truth of the next sentence being a conclusion. In other words, inference is an attempt to determine the truth of an hypothesis being the aim of inference. The process requires the skills of making decisions based on possessed knowledge.
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The calculation of sentences defines the ways of applying logical con- junctions as a means of establishing a correct inference. It is assumed in the classic calculation of sentences that one can attribute to every sentence one of two logical values - truth or falseness or has the truth value 1 or 0. So the classic calculation of sentences is the bivalent calculation of sentences. The calculation of sentences deals only with these grammatical sentences which are defined as indicative or declarative ones.
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