Archeology as a social science has been constantly striving since the 19th century to make material historical testimonies of all inhabited areas of the globe more available. It leads to the improvement and consolidation of systematic, chronological and chorological system and as a result to obtain a deepened insight into culture and into specific aspects of history of individual human communities. These penetrations are of diverse breadth and depth. The broadest and the deepest ones are observed in highly developed cultures, the least spectacular ones are noted in case of wandering hunting communities whose traces are only stone tools made in a hurry.
Przyjmowanie się marksistowskiej teorii rozwoju społeczeństwa było procesem długotrwałym i złożonym, integralnie złączonym z głębokimi przemianami w sierze świadomości, jakie dokonywały się w społeczeństwie polskim. Nauka, wchodząc w zakres świadomości społecznej, powstaje i rozwija sit' w obrębie społeczeństwa i wraz z nim, stąd zmiany strukturalne tegoż muszą znaleźć odzwierciedlenie w metodologicznych podstawach poszczególnych dyscyplin naukowych. Marksistowska teoria społeczeństw wskazuje na niektóre prawidłowości najogólniejsze, występujące we wszystkich okresach historycznych i prawidłowości bardziej szczegółowe, występujące w jednym podokiesie dziejów. Dzięki tym właściwościom marksizm jest teorią pozwalającą badać społeczeństwa w ujęciu bardziej ogólnym, a zarazem bardziej konkretnym,- formułuje najogólniejsze prawidłowości oraz ujawnia specyfikę ich przejawiania się w poszczególnych okresach. Rzecz charakterystyczna, że ten wszechstronny system filozoficzny w sposób minimalny oddziaływał przez długi okres czasu na prahistorię i archeologię. W XIX w. nie uzyskano konsekwentnej syn tezy zjawisk prahistorycznych i historycznych, powiązanych wspólnotą procesu dziejowego. Niedocenianie teorii ewolucji zjawisk społecznych opartej na badaniach archeologicznych w zakresie rozwoju form materialnych wytworów ludzkich, dokonującego się w zależności od środowiska, doprowadza do powstawania coraz to nowych hipotez usiłujących wytłumaczyć zjawiska zachodzące w procesie rozwoju społeczeństw, wyjaśniających je jednak tylko cząstkowo (lub czasem mylnie). Powstały hipotezy dyfuzji, przenikania wpływów kulturowych z zewnątrz i uzależniania od nich stanu, rozwoju i zmienności archeologicznych centrów kulturowych. W badaniach etnograficznych wypracowano teorię kręgów kulturowych, przestrzennie ograniczonych i skupiających typowe formy kultury materialnej, społecznej i duchowej. Teoria ta została przejęta przez archeologów, Którzy pojęcie kręgów kulturowych zaczęli łączyć z zasięgiem etnosów.
Die Grenzenbestimmung der besprochenen Territorien auf den Gebieten von Pommern und von Süd- und Mittelskandinavien wird durch das Thema des Forschungsprogramm "Peregrinatio Gothica", sowie auch durch eine gewisse Ähnlichkeit der geomorphologischen Struktur begründet. Terrainstruktur, Bodenbedingungen spielten sicherlich eine bestimmte Rolle in der Siedlungstätigkeit des Menschen, ohne aber dessen Rolle zu determinieren, besonders in den Zelten der relativ fortgeschrittenen wirtschaftlich-gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung. Der Charakter der von der Bevölkerung aus Süd- und Mittelskandinavien und auch aus Pommern geführten Wirtschaft scheint ähnlich zu sein. Darauf weisen die Ergebnisse der paleobotanlschen Forschungen hin, die sowohl für Pommern als auch im höheren Masse für Skandinavien durchgeführt worden sind. Bisherige komparative Studien widmen den Siedlungen, deren Planentwerfen Bebauung und den einzelnen architektonischen Merkmalen wenig Platz. In der Römischen Kaiserzeit trifft man auf dem Gebiet von Skandinavien Einzehl- und mehrhöfige Siedlungen von der unterschiedlichen Raumfläche. Die skandinavischen Materialien etlauben die einzelnen Objekte zu rekonstruieren. Charakteristisch für ganz Skandinavien und Jütländische Halbinsel ist ein Dreischiffgebäude von der Länge 10-45 m und der Breite 5-8,5 m. Die Art des in der Konstruktion der Wände benutzten Baumaterials war durch die naturellen Bedingungen determiniert. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Holz, Stein, Ton und Rasen benutzt. Die langen skandinavischen Häuser wurden in den Wohn- und Wirtschaftsteil geteilt. Im Wohnteil waren die Herdstellen situiert. Diese Art der Häuser war von der Mittlere Bronze zeit bis zum Ende der Wikingerzeit für Skandinavien charakteristisch Auf dem Gebiet von Skandinavien kam man auch auf die Spuren der Wehrkonstruktionen. Da aber der Forschungsstand dieser Objekte bisher ungenügend ist, wird die Interpretation deren Funktion schwach begründet. Pommern ist in Hinsicht der Sidlungsplanung und Baukonstruktionen schwach erforscht.Dieser Zustand kann auch durch häufigere Verwendung in den Gebäuden der ein oder zweischiffigen Grundstockkonstruktion, die wenig bemerkbare Spuren lässt, erläutert werden, oder auch durch grössere Anzahl der einhöfigen Ansiedlungen, die im Gelände schwieriger zu erfassen sind* Es sind auch nur einige Siedlungen bekannt, die die Spuren der vermutlichen Befestigungen besitzen. Auf Grund der durchgeführten Beobachtungen soll festgestellt werden, dass auf beiden gegenübergestellten Territorien von Skandinavien und Pommern in der Spät-Latene- Periode und römischen Kaiserzeit konstruktiv ganz andere Gebäudetypen bestanden, die durch jahrhundertalte Tradition gestaltet worden waren. Minimale ekologische Unterschiede stellen keine Erklärungen der Unterschiede zwischen den miteinanderverglichenen Territorien dar. Sie wurden auch nicht durch die Art der geführten Wirtschaft verursacht, weil sie für beide Gebiete ähnlich war - vorwiegend Zucht - landwirtschaftlich. Die festgestallten Unterschiede ergeben sich also aus den Kulturtraditionen der die besprochenen Territorien bewohnten Population und suggerieren, dass man in diesem Fall über die deutliche Diffusion der Menschengruppen aus Skandinavien auf die Gebiete von Pommern nicht sprechen kann. Auch andere Erscheinungen, die zur Gesamtheit der kulturellen Beziehungen gehören, weisen keine grössere Übereinstimmung auf, als diese, die durch allgemeine für römische Kaiserzeit charakteristische unifizierende Tendenzen beschrieben werden. Die vom Autor des Artikels geführten weiteren Forschungen lassen nähere Zusammenhänge zwischen dem Gebiet von Pommern und Niederweichsel sowie Niedersachsen und der Niederelbe suchen. In diesem Licht könnte man das Zentrum der Gotenkristallisation vom Anfang an auf dem Gebiet von Pommern sehen.
Prehistoric studies conducted all over the world made it possible to unearth preliterate cultures and discover a big diversification of civilizations created by man. Prehistory made us aware that all people irrespective of the age of their cultural status can document their past by millions of fossil findings. Thanks to the prehistory man with his material apparatus of technique, his self-knowledge in such fields as ethics, religion, or philosophy may be analyzed as a result of the evolutional process, which for a long time has been understood as changes in other forms of life. A difference between man and animal was revealed in the process of assimilating and processing the nature by him. The idea of work, which thanks to prehistory may have been encompassed by a philosophical formula, constitutes a fundamental princuple describing both the character and genesis of human existence. Prehistory opens up a deep historical perspektive of understanding the world. Since it was included in to a search for origins and determination of human beings’ identity it has become possible to extend the historical awareness far back in to prehistoric times. Throughout most of the existence of human history the space of territorial and historical awareness was narrowly limited. Thus it is not surprising that only a few decades earlier the ancient history as seen by Europeans was synonymous with the history of Biblical and classical man; history of the Middle Ages - was treated as synonymous with history of crusades , while modem times with history of European states and their colonies. Today there is a need for a comprehensive approach to the past history allowing to accomodate experiences of different civilizations. Thus one’s own prehistory must be analyzed against the background of other territories and human groups. It should, however, be characterized with respect for the native cultural tradition. The eminent place of prehistory consists in the fact that it represents the only science being able to reach far back in to the times about which we do not have any written records, and also - or perhaps primarily - because it is a science about continuously progressing development of man.
The present paper discusses the notion of "the sense of the nation" and "nationalism". Within ages various tendencies and interpretations were connected to these notions and those who spent their life time in indiscriminate language area and especially those who dit not experience the concern for mother tonque or the existence of their country were not always conscious of their significance. The article was limited to development of only some problems, as it seems, of significant meaning not concerned to the archaeological field. From the very vast number of problems these facts and experiences which are well-known or can be easily checked were chosen here while those which are doubtful or are only assumptions should be treated accordingly. Since nationalism is still the desease of our times it seems to be extremely important to explain the difference between the sense of the nation as a significant spiritual value and nationalism as moral wickedness.
The elaboration of the oldesthistory of human groups within the range of microregion faces significant difficulties especially in case of the very little amount of written sources. The author discusses the development of the settlement in the area of Tuchola Forests considering archaeological sources and taking into account the results of related sciences such as biology or sciences of the Earth. On the grounds of them he concludes that territorial organization developed in the northern part of Tuchola Forests is in agreement with the development of the whole area of Cdarisk Pomerania.
The social-economic changes undergoing in the XIIIth century Europe had an influence upon the development of old and the creation of new municipal centres. This phenomenon brought about the new way of town foundation (according to Magdeburg and Lübeck law) and also about the new colonization related with it. The hitherto existing literature of the subject has treated casually the problem of cultural changes which were followed by colonization processes. However, the colonization process is of great methodological value especially for the studies on cultural changes and on the ethnic interpretation of archeological sources. On the basis of three variants of the course of this process i.e.: a) the settlement of foreign immigatorv population in the new place, b) rehousing of the local population according te the German law, c) the settlement of foreign immigrants in existing rural and town communities, three different models of cultural changes can be observed. Such organized and arranged model investigations are led by a group of workers of University of Łódź in the chosen region of East Pomerania. The region chosen for this gave the opportunity to observe the traditional structuras of the settlement and also provided with materials undoubtedly related to immigratory groups of population. The area of castellany of Raciąż in the Duchy of Świecko was chosen for the research. Investigations concentrated upon the XIIIth century castle (made of earth and wood) of Raciąż castellany and upon municipal settlement in Tuchola. These studies proved that Raciąż, the castellanian abode, both in respect to fortification and interior buildings and in respect to the archeological material found in layers presents typical features for the Western Slavs. It is also reflected in the written sources. Whereas, Tuchola is characterized by the typical arrangement of the town settled according to the German law (what is confirmed by documents) and also by the totally different representation of the material culture what indicates on the immigration of the new foreign population. It seems that in the discursed case the first model of the course of the colonization process i.e. the settlement of foreign population in oreder to cultivate the land and also to introduce new production techniques is observed.
The Castro Culture occupies the area of northern-western part of Pyrenees (Galicia, the northern part of Portugal). Chronological limits according to the contemporary investigations are said to be from the 6^1* century В. C. till the end of the 1st century A. D., however some researchers claim that some significant elements of this culture lasted till the end of the 6 ^ century A. D. The name of this culture as the archaeological notions was adopted in the 19*-*1 century and was specified by P. Bosch-Gimpera in 1932. Due to the existence of defensive settlements (castra) it was supposed that this culture was of Celtic origin. The eastern Trans-Pyrenees province of Galicians was also mentioned. Whereas, the notions Celtos and Castros were treated as synonyms (Jose Vera у Aguiar). The function of castra was differently interpreted either as tombs, sanctuaries or fortifications built in protection of tracks. Castra were also treated as areas with organized settlement (Murguia). Due to significant archaeological discoveries made in the end of the 19t*1 century some very explicit cultural features of the regions occupied by defensive settlements of castro types are more clearly seen. Two main architectonic forms appearing in castra - i. e. buildings of ovate and orographic projection constructed of cast wall are distinguished. Specific style of decoration of pottery by means of die ornament was also notified. As compared to the rest of Iberian territory the specific jewelery, especially fibulas, torkwes, bracelets and earings were distinguished.
In 1986 the team of Workers of the Archaeological Institute of Łódź University together with the Archaeological Institute of University of Santiago de Compostela began the common research studies. The subject of investigations of both Universities is devoted to microregional studies on the development of the settlement. The Castro culture limited to Halstatt, Latenian and Roman periods was chosen as a basis for such studies. The research group is interested in the genesis of this culture as well as its further transformations the Middle Ages. Defensive settlements of different size situated on natural hills are characteristic for this culture. The specific feature of Castro culture, at least in its present state investigations, is its long duration (from the VII century B.C. to the II century A.D. and even as others daim to the VI century A.D.). One of topics of many years programme are excavations of Crana Castro situated in the centre of Galicia, 7 km north of Melide town. The subjekt of studies is the use of methods which will allow the reserchers to learn the stratigraphy and the structure of cultural foliation and natural sediments in order to establish the exact chronology and function of the objekt. Excavations were arranged in one row to obtain initial information about all main ponts of the settlement. During the first research season of Grafta the fragments of outer defensive stone wall constructed without mortar were discovered. The fragments coming from its inner structure and probably used as dwelling and subsidiary places were discovered as well. Initially two phases of the existence of the settlement with buildings both of oval and rectangular shape were distinguished. The hearth originally a Stove with stone walls and clay mud floor was very interesting. Fragments of pattery both hand-made and made on the grinding stone, clay whorls, glaze beads, gold ear-rings and stone axe most likely used secondarily constitute the antique material. All material allows us to date the exavated layers from the II century B.C. to the II century A.D. Besides excavations; archival and historiographical studies confirming or excluding relations among settlement structures functioning in the period of Roman occupation, in the Middle Ages and in contemporary times in the area of the discussed microregion were conducted as well. Palinologic investigations were begun in order to reconstruct natural environment and its changes in the time course. The number of castro settlements near Melide town is very high. Their mutual time relation is a problem to be explained. If they were existing at the same time then it is possible to reconstruct the territory of economic exploitation of this region assuming that the economy of this region was of farming character. However, these are so far very little documented assumptions which require to be confirmed by detailed studies on few neighbouring settlement morphologically constructing one microregion.
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