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EN
The second phase of the Battle of the Atlantic in 1942-1945 was characterized by taking the initiative by the Allies. Within the frameworks of this offensive, aircraft carriers which were able to dominate the sea battlefield, became the main force of the British and American fleet. Not only did they force the German submarines of the Atlantic to retreat but they also contributed to a defeat of above-water forces of Kriegsmarine. At the same time, without a support of aircraft carriers, it is difficult to imagine an operation of transferring soldiers and military supplies from the USA to Great Britain and as the effect opening in 1944 the second front in Normand, held so dextrously. Development of aircraft carriers and their active usage let the Allies win the Battle of the Atlantic faster and more dextrously.
EN
As a result of the “Pereyaslav Council” in 1654, the Polish – Moscow war broke out. The war lasted until 1667, till signing the truce in Andrusowo. For both sides the document was not satisfying and as a result it was meant to last shortly. A political situation, wars of Poland and Moscow with various neighbors forced both sides to prolong the truce. In 1678, another treaty which prolonged it for another 13 years was signed in Moscow. In Poland the negotiations were considered as controversial and their result as unsatisfying. However, contemporary the treaty is little known. The text presented below is to remind of circumstances of those events and to make the unknown and unused in Polish historiography version of the document kept in archives of the Institute of History in Russian Academy of Sciences in Sankt Petersburg public.
EN
The Caspian Sea has been perceived as one of the most important regions of the world for a very long time, mainly thanks to huge oil deposits and the accompanying petroleum gas. States situated at the waters shared zones of influence and the situation has been stable for many years. The collapse of the Soviet Union lead to rapid changes in this region. As a result of new countries coming into existence, there appeared a need for one more demarcation of zones of sea influence. Unfortunately, such a treaty has not been signed yet and the situation in the region is getting more and more severe. Azerbaijan as well as Turkmenistan wants to build pipelines towards Western Europe while Russia at any price wants to prevent it. There is also an intense situation concerning Georgia and the really hard Iranian problem – American relations. Maybe the region of the Caspian Sea is not the Persian Gulf but a threat of a war there is really possible as well as the so called „Georgian scenario”.
RU
Каспийское море считается уже давно одним из важнейших регионов в мире, в главном благодаря огромным ресурсом нефти и газа. Прикаспийские государства регулировали сферы влияния и на некоторое время ситуация успокоилась. Распад СССР повел к сильным политическим переменам также в этом районе. Вследствие возникновения новых государств необходимо было заново вести разговоры о морских сферах влияния прикаспийских государств. До сих пор страны ведут переговоры о правовом статусе Каспия, что ведет к тому, что ситуация в регионе обостряется. Азербайджан и Туркменистан хотят строить трубопроводы в сторону Западной Европы, Россия не согласна на такое решение. К этому добавляется нестабильнаяситуация в Грузии и еще отношения Америки и Ирана, которые еще сложнее. Конечно, регион Каспия это не Персидский залив, но возможность начала войны и там высокая и т.н. „грузинский сценарий” впол-не возможен.
EN
On February 3, 2014, the American task force, including the command ship USS "Mont Whitney” entered the Black Sea. The ship was a flagship during the last few military operations of the USA on the Mediterranean Sea for example against Libya or in the area of Syria. The American task force appeared on the Black Sea without giving the official reason. It is possible that it happened in frameworks of anti - terrorist operations by the way of the Olympic Games in Sochi but it is also possible that it was to support Georgia and to represent American political interests.
RU
3 февраля 2014 на Чёрное моря вошёл коллектив американских кораблей, в том корабль командования USS „Mont Whitney”. Тот корабль, был флажной единицей в нескольких последних военных операций США на Средиземном Море , к примеру против Либии, или же в районе Сырии. Американский коллектив кораблей появился на Чёрном Море, без заявления официальной причины. Возможное, что в пределах антитеррористической операции попутно Олимпиады в Сочи, а возможное что в пределах содействия для Грузии и представляния американских политических интерес.
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PL
Państwo włoskie w okresie faszystowskim było krajem, który błyskawicznie porzucił gospodarkę wolnorynkową na rzecz systemu korporacyjnego. Miał on zapewnić rozwój państwa, jego unowocześnienie, którego symbolem stały się pierwsze włoskie autostrady. Gospodarka do 1940 r. rozwijała się jednak wolno, ciągle drenowana na rzecz kolejnych konfliktów kolonialnych i wojny domowej w Hiszpanii. Wskutek tego okazała się całkowicie nieprzygotowana do wojny światowej. W czasie II wojny światowej włoska gospodarka była niewydolna i niezdolna do zapewnienia własnym siłom zbrojnym odpowiednio nowoczesnego sprzętu wojskowego. Jednocześnie nie potrafiono zaspokoić podstawowych potrzeb społeczeństwa włoskiego. Klęska militarna, a potem polityczna Włoch, najpierw dokonała się na polu zdewastowanej gospodarki, całkowicie zrujnowanej w latach 1940–1943.
EN
The Italian state in the Fascist era was a country which abandoned its free-market economy in favour of corporatism. It was supposed to ensure the state’s development and modernisation, symbolised the first Italian motorways. However, the economy grew slowly until 1940, continuously drained by subsequent colonial conflicts or the civil war in Spain. As a result, it proved to be completely unprepared for a world war. During the Second World War, the Italian economy was inefficient and unable to provide its own armed forces with suitably modern military equipment. At the same time, the basic needs of the Italian society could not be met. The military defeat of Italy, followed by political collapse, first occurred in the economy that was completely ruined between 1940-1943.
PL
Stosunki polsko-żydowskie w pierwszej połowie XX w. pozostają najtrudniejszym fragmentem wspólnych losów. Bardzo często opinie o nich nie mają oparcia w solidnej analizie materiału źródłowego. Tekst powstał w efekcie prac badawczych uwzględniających niewykorzystywany dotąd materiał źródłowy odnoszący się do początków województwa stanisławowskiego w latach 1921–1922. Budowa państwa polskiego na Kresach Wschodnich była niezwykle trudna z uwagi na wrogość ludności ukraińskiej walczącej o własne państwo, słabość własnych struktur administracyjnych czy brak poparcia mocarstw Ligi Narodów. Ludność żydowska wobec starań i działań państwa polskiego zachowywała chłodną neutralność, sprzyjając raczej staraniom ludności ukraińskiej. Obraz samoizolacji społeczności żydowskiej wobec państwa polskiego, niechęci do udziału w wyborach czy spisie powszechnym jest istotnym elementem w dyskusji o wzajemnych stosunkach polsko-żydowskich w II Rzeczypospolitej.
EN
Polish-Jewish relations in the first half of the 20th century remain the most difficult fragment of our common fate. Very often opinions about them are formulated that are not based on a solid analysis of the source material. The ensuing text was created as a result of research work on previously unused source material relating to the beginnings of the Stanisławów Province in the years 1921-1922. Building the Polish state in the Eastern Borderlands was extremely difficult, especially in view of the hostility of the Ukrainian people fighting for the establishment of their own state, the weakness of their own administrative structures, or the lack of support from the powers of the League of Nations. The Jewish population maintained a cold neutrality in the face of the efforts and actions of the Polish state, favouring the efforts of the Ukrainian people. The image of the selfisolation of the Jewish population from the Polish state, reluctance to participate in elections or the census, is an important element in the discussion on Polish-Jewish relations in the Second Polish Republic.
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