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EN
The article is an attempt to present and analyze the concept of a foreign policy, formulated in the years of the Second Republic of Poland by the representatives of the political circle of “Zet”, and to relate to the issue of Poland’s relations with Soviet Russia (known later as the Soviet Union) and to the actions on the international arena of the eastern neighbor of Poland. The underground Polish Youth Union “Zet” was established in 1886 in Warsaw in order to fight for a united, independent, democratic and socially just Republic of Poland. In interwar Poland, while maintaining a secret character, “Zet” coordinated the activities of a network of public organizations and periodicals (forming the so-called “Zet”-movement) influencing the political and social life in the country. In Soviet Russia, and later in the Soviet Union, “Zet” saw a threat to the reborn Republic of Poland in the imperial and aggressive nature of the foreign policy of the Bolsheviks. “Zet” supported the federal program and then the Promethean program. The organization also advocated a close cooperation among the western neighbors of the Soviet state. The concepts of the Zetist foreign policy relating to Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union were based on the postulate to weaken “The Red Kremlin”, defined as a declared opponent of independent Poland.
PL
Przedmiotem niniejszego artykułu jest próba zaprezentowania i analizy koncepcji polityki zagranicznej, formułowanych w latach Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej przez przedstawicieli politycznego środowiska „Zetu”, a odnoszących się do zagadnienia relacji Polski z Rosją Sowiecką (później Związkiem Sowieckim) oraz poczynań na arenie międzynarodowej wschodniego sąsiada państwa polskiego. Konspiracyjny Związek Młodzieży Polskiej „Zet” powstał w 1886 r. w Warszawie pod hasłem walki o zjednoczoną, niepodległą, demokratyczną i sprawiedliwą społecznie Rzeczpospolitą. W Polsce międzywojennej, zachowując tajny charakter, koordynował działalność sieci jawnych organizacji i periodyków (tworzących tzw. ruch zetowy), wpływając na życie polityczne i społeczne w kraju. W Rosji Sowieckiej, a później Związku Sowieckim, widział zagrożenie dla odrodzonej Rzeczypospolitej, wskazując na imperialny i agresywny charakter polityki zagranicznej bolszewików. „Zet” popierał program federacyjny, a następnie prometejski. Opowiadał się też za bliską współpracą zachodnich sąsiadów państwa sowieckiego. Koncepcje polityki zagranicznej zetowców, odnoszące się do Rosji Sowieckiej i Związku Sowieckiego, opierały się na postulacie osłabienia „czerwonego Kremla”, definiowanego jako zdeklarowany przeciwnik niepodległej Polski.
EN
The subject of the review is a selection of journalistic writings by Ignacy Matuszewski, prepared and foreworded by Sławomir Cenckiewicz. The author of the collected texts was an outstanding figure – an outspoken supporter of Piłsudski, organiser of military intelligence, diplomat and minister of the Second Polish Republic, as well as a leading columnist of the post-May camp and its leader in exile after 1939. In the light of the collected articles he appears as a brilliant political thinker, but above all as a great patriot of Independent Poland.
PL
Przedmiotem recenzji jest wybór pism Ignacego Matuszewskiego, opracowany i opatrzony wstępem przez Sławomira Cenckiewicza. Autor zebranych tekstów był postacią niezwykłą – zwolennik Piłsudskiego, organizator wywiadu, dyplomata i minister II Rzeczypospolitej, a także czołowy publicysta obozu pomajowego i jego lider na emigracji po 1939 r. W zebranych artykułach jawi się jako wybitny myśliciel polityczny, przede wszystkim jednak – jako wielki patriota Niepodległej Polski.
PL
Bitwa pod Kostiuchnówką stoczona w dniach 4–6 VII 1916 r. na Wołyniu przez trzy Brygady Legionów Polskich z przeważającymi siłami rosyjskimi, uczestniczącymi w ofensywie Brusiłowa, przyczyniła się do umiędzynarodowienia sprawy polskiej w latach I wojny światowej, a w konsekwencji – odzyskania przez Polskę niepodległości. Przebieg bitwy i jej polityczne konsekwencje w postaci Aktu 5 listopada, zapowiadającego utworzenie Królestwa Polskiego, zostały zaprezentowane w oparciu o pamiętniki, wspomnienia, dzienniki i inne dokumenty z epoki oraz dotychczasowe ustalenia literatury przedmiotu. The Battle of Kostiuchnówka (Kostyukhnivka, in modern Ukraine) fought on 4–6 July 1916 in Volhynia by three Brigades of the Polish Legions with the prevailing Rus sian forces taking part in the Brusilov Offensive contributed to the internalisation of the Polish cause during the First World War, and in consequence – to the regaining of independ ence by Poland. The course of the battle and its political outcomes in the form of the Act of 5th November, announcing the formation of Polish Kingdom, were presented on the basis of memoirs, journals, diaries and other documents of the period as well as the literature on the subject.
EN
In this article, based on archival materials, political journalism and press, the conceptions of the “Zet“-Movement related to the problems of the Polish minorities in the world. The “Zet”-Movement was organised by activists of the secret Patriotic Union and the Union of Polish Youth “Zet”. They founded many legal social and political organisations – the Society of Borderland Guard, the Union of People’s Councils, the Polish Western Union, the Union for Reforms of the Republic, the Labour Union of Villages and Towns and the Union of Social Activists. In the Second Republic of Poland the “Zet”-Movement supported Józef Piłsudski’wing of Post-May Camp and tried to create an ideology for this political camp. The activists of this movement declared for democratic system and opposed dictatorship, however they criticised parliamentary system, demanding presidential one. They proposed to suport politically, economically and culturally Polish minorities in the world.
EN
The relations between freemasonic organisations and the Catholic Church turned out badly since the moment of birth of modern freemasonery in the 18th century. It was caused by Church distrust of the idea of ideological tolerance, preached by freemasons, and the Catholic clergy fear of spreading universal freemasonic ideology which could compete with the clerical one. In interwar Poland the Catholic Church, supported by the national right wing, had hostile attitude towards the lodges. Under the propaganda of the Catholic national camp a negative stereotype of freemasonic organizations was shaped in the 2nd Rzeczpospolita public opinion. Its appearance could not be disturbed by few freemasons’ and liberals’ manifestations defending the lodges. The opponents of freemasonic orders accused them of fighting the Catholic doctrine, the wish to humiliate the institution of the Church, breaking up the Catholics’ unity and the attempts to destroy Christianity. National - Catholic circles saw in freemasonery „Antichurch” - a centre coordinating the work of groups, organizations and movements opposing the Catholic church domination in political and religious life of interwar Poland. In fact, freemasons were not a real threat for the Catholic church in the 2nd Rzeczpospolita. Freemasonic thought was inspired by Christianity and many members of the lodges were believing Christians. Preached by freemasons ideological tolerance assumed full freedom of all religious cults of course a Catholic one included. In interwar Poland there were very few attempts of reliable analysis of the lodges’ attitude towards the Catholic church. The picture which dominated described a freemason as an atheist, an enemy of religion but first of all of Catholicism. Although this picture became very popular it was far from the truth as well.
EN
In this article, based on studying archival materials and press, a process of divorce between the „Zet” (League of Polish Youth „Zet”) and the Endecja (National Democracy Camp) in 1908-1914 is showed. That process appeard as a result of a disagreement in such matters like: an attitude to the independence of Poland, a vision of Polish nation, an opinion about the 1905 Revolution and its School Strike and the boycott of Russian schools. „Zet” activists constantly supported a fight for the independence, including a military action. On the other hand, the Endecja supported activity, which was based on current political and legal conditions, linking to Roman Dmowski’s political conceptions. The process of „Zet’s” leaving the Endecja structures was not simple. The Endecja opposed it, there were also some common elements of ideology and political program as well as sense of common tradition played an important part in some circles of the „Zet”. Finally, in the face of World War I the „Zet” authorities decided to support Józef Piłsudski and his military action. It can be regarded as a proof the process of divorce between the „Zet” and the Endecja was done.
EN
The aim of the article is to outline and analyze the attitudes of Polish youth from the Congress Kingdom towards the issue of Poland’s independence during the Great War. The attitude of the representatives of the young generation towards this issue is presented on the examples of the most important youth circles of the Polish Kingdom during the World War I: national and independence – the Polish Youth Association “Zet” and the Organization of Independence Youth “Zarzewie”; left-wing – the Union of Progressive and Independence Youth and the Union of Independent Socialist Youth; a circle of “revolutionists” and “internationalists” under the influence of the Social Democracy of the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania and the Polish Socialist Party-Left; finally – rural youth from the Bartosz’ Teams. The analysis covered political letters, declarations, appeals, diaries, as well as organizational activities and participation of young people in the Polish military action during the World War I. During this period, the majority of youth organizations of the Congress Kingdom – with the exception of a small circle of revolutionaries – unanimously raised the postulate of rebuilding independent Poland with the help of various means: through diplomatic channels, through the expansion of state institutions and as a result of the participation of the Polish soldier in the war struggles. They also shared the belief that the system of the reborn state should be based on democratic and self-government ideas, national and religious tolerance as well as social justice (or even socialist).
PL
Celem artykułu jest zarysowanie i analiza postaw polskiej młodzieży Królestwa Kongresowego wobec kwestii niepodległości Polski w dobie Wielkiej Wojny. Postawa przedstawicieli młodego pokolenia wobec tej kwestii jest prezentowana na przykładach najważniejszych młodzieżowych środowisk Królestwa Polskiego w latach I wojny światowej: narodowo-niepodległościowych – Związku Młodzieży Polskiej „Zet” i Organizacji Młodzieży Niepodległościowej „Zarzewie”; lewicowych – Związku Młodzieży Postępowo-Niepodległościowej i Związku Niezależnej Młodzieży Socjalistycznej; kręgu „rewolucjonistów” i „internacjonalistów”, pozostających pod wpływami Socjaldemokracji Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy oraz Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej-Lewicy; wreszcie – młodzieży wiejskiej spod znaku Drużyn Bartoszowych. Analizą objęto pisma polityczne, deklaracje, odezwy, pamiętniki, jak też działania w zakresie organizacyjnym i udział młodzieży w polskim czynie zbrojnym w czasie I wojny światowej. W tym okresie liczące się tajne i jawne organizacje młodzieży Królestwa Kongresowego – z wyjątkiem niewielkiego środowiska rewolucjonistów – zgodnie podnosiły postulat odbudowy niepodległej Polski z pomocą różnorodnych środków: drogą dyplomatyczną, poprzez rozbudowę państwowych instytucji i w wyniku udziału polskiego żołnierza w wojennych zmaganiach. Podzielały również przekonanie, iż ustrój odrodzonego państwa powinien opierać się na ideach demokratycznych, samorządowych, tolerancji narodowościowej i religijnej oraz sprawiedliwości społecznej (czy wręcz socjalistycznych).
EN
In this article, based on studying archival materials and press, a history of Lechnickis brothers – Zdzisław, Tadeusz and Felicjan – in the Second Republic of Poland is showed. They were Polish landowners, politicians and social activists – leaders of the Polish Youth Union “Zet” and the Patriotic League. Before the First World War they supported a fight for the independence, including a military struggle. In the face of war Lechnickis decided to suport Józef Piłsudski and his military action. In the interwar Poland they tried to create a political movement, supporting Piłsudski’s activity and his coup d’etat. Lechnickis created an ideology for the Sanacja political camp which was formed then. Zdzisław, Tadeusz and Felicjan declared for democratic system and opposed dictatorship, however, they criticized parliamentary system, demanding presidential one. They supported a development of the municipal autonomy and tolerant policy towards national minorities, promoting state assimilation. As the leaders of “Zet” and the Patriotic League supported also the etatism and state interventionism in economy. The state was perceived by Lechnickis as the highest form of organization for political, economic, social and national life, as well as their political activity had reference to state interest.
EN
After the death of Piłsudski and the dissolution of the Non-party Block of the Co-operation with the Government (BBWR) - in the period of the aggravating decomposition of the post-May camp, the group of „Naprawa” (in the years 1926-1939 known subsequently as: Związek Naprawy Rzeczypospolitej - the Union of the Amendemend of the Republic, Zjednoczenie Pracy Wsi i Miast - the Union of Labour of Villages and Cities, and Związek Działaczy Społecznych - the Union of the Social Activists) - tried to play a role of the programme creating centre concentrating the dispersed Pitsudski’s supporters. In aspring 1937 the „Amendators” supported the founding of the National Unification Camp (OZN) and joint it. The aggravating international situation of Poland convinced them to support the idea of the national consolidation under the leadership of the „successor of the Commander” (Piłsudski) - General Inspector of the Military Forces - Edward Rydz-Śmigły. Initially „Naprawa” proclaiming the necessity of the political dialogue between the Pilsudski’s supporters and the Polish Socialist Party, Polish Peasant Party and Polish Labour Party as well as the idea of the tolerant state policy towards national minorities, played the role of the inner opposition within the OZN. It opposed the national and totalitarian tendencies that dominated in the leading circles of the Camp. In the years 1938-1939 when the personal changes in the leadership of the OZN had been already completed and the political position of the Camp had been shifted into the direction of more moderate state-national ideology, the „Amendators” won quite a considerable influence on the shaping of the programme and the acitivity of the Camp. It seems they considered the OZN as a decadent form of the post-May system of ruling of the country embodied by the authoritarian dictatorship of the Pilsudski’s supporters. They stressed the necessity to democratize in an evolutionary way the political relations in the country. Referring to the slogans of the strong state, stabile democracy and social justice they tried to create the political centre with and ideological programme clear and attractive for the electorate.
EN
In 1886, at the University of Warsaw was established a secret Association of the Polish Youth „Zet” (APY). In the three decades it has become well organised and operating structure, with its outposts in the academic centres, where they studied the Poles – in Polish lands all three partitions, in Russia and in Western Europe. The program of APY called for young people to fight for an independent, united, democratic, self-governing, socially equitable and tolerant republic. The members of APY, in order to affect young Poles, ran on an activity involving the creation and inspiration of the academic unions and the associations of students, youth workers and peasants. They try to penetrate the existing structure of the „adult” society. Among these organizations were: „Red Rose”, „X”, „Pet”, National Groups, the National Youth Organization, „Eleuzis”, Union of Polish Societies in Germany „Unitas”, the Union of Societies of the Polish Youth Abroad, Union of Youth Craft, National Union of Workers, the National Union of Peasants, People Education League, National Education Association and the team Bartosz’s Troops. They expanded the influence of APY.
PL
W 1886 r. na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim powstał tajny Związek Młodzieży Polskiej „Zet” (ZMP). W ciągu trzech dekad stał się on sprawnie zorganizowaną i działającą strukturą, mającą swoje placówki w ośrodkach akademickich, w których studiowali Polacy – na ziemiach polskich wszystkich trzech zaborów, w Rosji oraz w Europie Zachodniej. Program Związku wzywał młodzież do walki o niepodległą, zjednoczoną, demokratyczną, samorządną, sprawiedliwą społecznie oraz tolerancyjną Rzeczpospolitą. Członkowie ZMP, dążąc do wpływu na młodych Polaków, prowadzili działalność polegającą na zakładaniu i inspirowaniu związków akademickich, uczniowskich, młodzieży robotniczej i chłopskiej. Starali się również penetrować już istniejące struktury „dorosłego” społeczeństwa. Do grona tych organizacji należały: „Czerwona Róża”, „X”, „Pet”, Towarzystwa Tomasza Zana, Grupy Narodowe, Organizacja Młodzieży Narodowej, „Eleuzis”, Związek Towarzystw Polskich w Niemczech „Unitas”, Zjednoczenie Towarzystw Młodzieży Polskiej Zagranicą, Związek Młodzieży Rzemieślniczej, Narodowy Związek Robotniczy, Narodowy Związek Chłopski, Liga Oświaty Ludowej, Towarzystwo Oświaty Narodowej i Drużyny Bartoszowe. Poszerzały one wpływy ZMP.
EN
The Labour Union of Villages and Cities (Zjednoczenie Pracy Wsi i Miast - ZPWiM) was a continuation of the Union of the Amendment of the Republic (Związek Naprawy Rzeczypospolitej) - which had been created in 1926 - after the coup d'état of May. It lead the left and the liberal-democratic wing of BBWR (Non-party Block of the Co-operation with the Government - Bezpartyjny Blok Współpracy z Rządem). The bulk of its members was constituted with the radical intelligentsia and a part of the workers’ circles - those who supported Józef Piłsudski and the ideas of syndicalism as well. During the parliamentary electoral campaign 1930 ZPWiM was propagating the slogans of the firm presidency, struggle against the party strife and “seymocracy” (over-influence of the Seym - Polish parliament - on the political system of the stale), interventionism and state control in economy, the need of the organisation of the people within the frame of the firm labour and economic structure, and “the workers-producers class” control over the production. ZPWiM fought sharply against the parties in opposition to the “After May camp” - both on right and left side and those which constituted the so called “Centrolew”, while simultaneously its members were trying to cut off from their “parent party” BBWR. They were afraid of domination of BBWR over ZPWiM, and they noticed the aversion or the leaders of BBWR to the creation of the consequent social-political program capable to unite the people under the banner of “May revolution". During the parliamentary elections of 1930 ZPWiM gained 24 seat in Seym and 4 in Senate. The Members of Parliament from ZPWiM joined the BBWR club in parliament in which they played the role of a kind of an interior opposition contesting conservatism of the leaders of BBWR and the political course leading to the open dictatorship.
EN
Związek Naprawy Rzeczypospolitej - ZNR, „Naprawa” (The League for Reforms of the Republic) came into existence on the turn of May and June 1926. It was organized by activists of secret Związek Patriotyczny (The Patriotic League) as a public representation of Związek Młodzieży Polskiej „Zet” (The League of Polish Youth „Zet”). „Naprawa” supported J. Pitsudski’s coup d’etat. It tried to create a political movement, supporting Piłsudski’s activity and creating an ideology for the sanacja political camp which was formed then. ZNR activists declared for democratic system and opposed dictatorship, however, they criticized parliamentary system, demanding presidential one. They supported a development of the municipal autonomy and tolerant policy towards national minorities, promoting state assimilation. ZNR supported also the etatism and state interventionism in economy. An important part played activists of the syndicalist wing of the league, who tried to create strong and independent from political parties trade unions, which should have an influence on the legislation and should become a support for the government. In the matter of foreign policy, „Naprawa” provided that Poland should stabilize political situation of Central-Eastern Europe. An analysis on the ZNR programm shows that it combined both rightist and leftist ideas. It is difficult to deline an ideological aspect of this organization. An attitude towards the state is an element which should make it possible to explain clearly the programm of „Naprawa”. The state was perceived by ZNR activists as the highest form of organization for political, economic, social and national life, as well as their political activity had reference to state interest.
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