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PL
Artykuł ukazuje historię wyspy Bornholm w latach 1940–1946. Okres drugiej wojny światowej i kilkanaście miesięcy po jej zakończeniu stanowią jeden z najważniejszych momentów w historii tej wyspy. Jej mieszkańcy doświadczyli w tym czasie okupacji niemieckiej, radzieckiego wyzwolenia i okupacji. Na wyspie wojna trwała od 10 kwietnia 1940 roku, tj. od zajęcia jej przez oddziały niemieckie, do 5 kwietnia 1946 roku, kiedy z miasta Rønne odpłynął ostatni statek z żołnierzami Armii Czerwonej. W okresie okupacji niemieckiej rozwój wydarzeń na wyspie różnił się znacznie od tego, czego doświadczyła w tym czasie reszta Danii, Niemcy praktykowali tu bowiem łagodną formę okupacji, chociaż Bornholm stopniowo włączany był w niemieckie działania wojenne. Sytuacja odwróciła się w maju 1945 roku – gdy mieszkańcy reszty Danii świętowali odzyskanie wolności, na wyspę spadły radzieckie bomby. Artykuł wyjaśnia motywy działań Związku Radzieckiego oraz stanowisko rządu duńskiego wobec zaistniałej sytuacji. Sytuacja ta była tym bardziej zaskakująca, że Duńczycy w zasadzie nigdy nie protestowali przeciwko zajęciu wyspy przez Rosjan. Na końcu wyjaśnione zostały okoliczności wycofania się Armii Czerwonej z Bornholmu.
EN
The article presents the history of the Bornholm Island in the years 1940–1946. WWII and a dozen or so months after it ended have constituted one of the most significant moments in this island’s history. This is because at this time its inhabitants experienced both the German occupation and the Soviet liberation and subsequent occupation. In the island the war lasted from April 10, 1940, i.e. from its occupation by German units, to April 5, 1946 when the last ship carrying Red Army soldiers aboard sailed away from Rønne. During the German occupation the development of events on the island differed significantly from the parallel experience of the rest of Denmark, for in Bornholm the German exerted the “mild” version of the occupation even though the place gradually became a German war theatre, too. The situation changed in May 1945, the time when Soviet bombs were cast on the island while the rest of Denmark celebrated the regaining of liberty. The article explains the motifs behind these actions to have been undertaken by the Soviet Union as well as the position of the Danish government towards this situation. The situation was the more surprising for, on the whole, the Danish never protested against the Soviet occupation of the island. The article ends in an explanation of the circumstances leading to the withdrawal of the Red Army from Bornholm.
EN
The paper is aimed at presenting policy pursued by German occupants and Norwegian fascists toward the Church in Norway during World War II. Resistance mounted by the Lutheran Church to the Nazis, in Norwegian literature referred to as “kirkekampen“ (struggle waged by the Church), is hardly addressed by Polish authors. The article is nearly completely based on Norwegian literature, and printed sources are used as primary source material. In 1940, after Norway had been invaded, the Norwegians had to face a new (occupation) reality. The authorities of the German Third Reich did not however follow a uniform policy toward the Church in the occupied Europe. In Norway, the Church was state-run, in other words the state was obliged to propagate Lutheran religion and enable Norwegian citizens to follow their religious practices. In 1940, the occupants did not immediately take action against the Church. Furthermore, both the Nazi Germany and the NS assured the invaded about their positive approach to religion. They did not intend to interfere in the matters of the Church as long as the clergy did not oppose the new political situation. Events that took place at the turn of 1940 and 1941 proved that the German Third Reich and the NS planned to connect the Norwegians to gas supply system. Nevertheless, the Church ceased to be loyal toward the occupants when the Norwegian law was being violated by the Nazis. The conflict between the Church and the Nazi authorities started at the end of January and the beginning of February 1941, yet it had its origin in political and religious developments that took place in Norway during the first year of occupation. Massive repressions against the clergy began in 1942, and bishops were the first to suffer from persecution. In February 1942, they were expelled, lost their titles and had to report to the police regularly. Very soon they lost the right to make speeches at gatherings. It is worth mentioning Bishop Beggrav who was interned between 1942 and 1945, i.e. longest of all clergy members. Since temporary expelling of priests from their parishes paralyzed their pastoral activity, in 1943 the Ministry of Church and Education began to send the “non grata“ pastors to isles situated north of Norway. Nevertheless, the internment conditions in which the clergymen lived were much better than the conditions in which Norwegian teachers were being kept. What contributed to such a difference was strong objection stated by the German Third Reich against continuing the conflict with the Church. Just as in the Nazi Germany, Hitler postponed taking final decision about the future of the Norwegian Church and planned to settle the matter after the war. In this way, he prevented Quisling from pursuing his own policy toward the Church.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest przedstawienie polityki okupacyjnych władz niemieckich i norweskich faszystów wobec Kościoła w Norwegii w okresie drugiej wojny światowej. Zagadnienie przeciwstawiania się Kościoła luterańskiego władzom nazistowskim, określane w literaturze norweskiej jako „kirkekampen” (walka Kościoła) jest praktycznie nieobecne w literaturze polskiej. Artykuł oparty jest prawie wyłącznie na literaturze norweskiej a podstawowy materiał źródłowy stanowią źródła drukowane. Po zajęciu Norwegii w 1940 roku Norwegowie stanęli przed problemem jak ustosunkować się do nowej, okupacyjnej rzeczywistości. Władze Trzeciej Rzeszy nie prowadziły jednolitej polityki wobec Kościołów na zajętych i okupowanych terytoriach Europy. Kościół w Norwegii był kościołem państwowym tzn. państwo miało obowiązek wspierać religię luterańską i chronić praktyki religijnej. W 1940 roku władza okupacyjna nie wystąpiła otwarcie przeciwko Kościołowi, a co więcej zarówno Niemcy, jak i członkowie NS zapewniali o pozytywnym stosunku do religii. Nie zamierzano ingerować w sprawy Kościoła tak długo, jak duchowni nie sprzeciwiali się nowej sytuacji politycznej. Wydarzenia, do których doszło na przełomie lat 1940 1941 wyraźnie pokazały do czego zmierzają Niemcy i NS – społeczeństwo norweskie miało zostać znazyfikowane. Lojalność Kościoła wobec władzy okupacyjnej stanęła pod znakiem zapytania w chwili łamania przez nazistów prawa norweskiego. Konflikt między Kościołem a władzą nazistowską zaczął się na przełomie stycznia i lutego 1941 roku, ale jego podstawy leżały w rozwoju politycznym i religijnym Norwegii w pierwszym roku okupacji. Represje wobec duchowieństwa na większą skalę rozpoczęły się na początku 1942 roku, pierwszymi wobec których zastosowano ostrzejsze metody byli biskupi. W lutym 1942 roku zostali zwolnieni, pozbawienie tytułu i nałożono na nich obowiązek meldowania się na policji, wkrótce zabroniono im przemawiać na zgromadzeniach. Najdłużej zatrzymanym wśród wszystkich duchownym był biskup Beggrav, internowany w latach 1942–1945. Ponieważ tymczasowe wygnania kleru z parafii skutecznie paraliżowały działalność duszpasterską, Ministerstwo Kościoła i Edukacji rozpoczęło w 1943 roku zsyłanie niepożądanych pastorów na wysepki na północy Norwegii. Warunki przetrzymywania duchownych były bez porównania lepsze niż na przykład nauczycieli. Przyczyn tej różnicy należy szukać w wyraźnym sprzeciwie Niemiec wobec kontynuowania konfliktu z Kościołem. Podobnie jak w Niemczech, Hitler odłożył ostateczny rozrachunek z Kościołem w Norwegii na okres po zakończeniu wojny i tym samym ograniczył możliwość prowadzenia własnej polityki wobec kościoła przez Quislinga.
EN
The decision to establish cooperation between Denmark and Poland aft er WWII was determined by economic reasons. Poland became an important supplier of coal to Denmark. Despite the fact that the countries belonged to two opposing political-military blocks, the Danish diplomatic post in Warsaw observed what was going on in Poland and the changes taking place in Polish home policy. The years 1949–1956 were eventful: the Polish United Workers’ Party took over power in the country and the anti-clerical offensive and Stalinist terror mounted; the culminating point of the period were the events of October 1956 and Władysław Gomułka took over. The aim of the article is to demonstrate the manner in which the Danish post in Warsaw described and evaluated the changes taking place in Poland in the years 1949–1956, which events attracted the interest of diplomats and which were considered insignificant. Danish diplomats perceived postwar Poland as a country where the communist system had been imposed by the USSR and was closely controlled by the Soviets. Nevertheless, they had a liking for the Polish nation, particularly for Bolesław Bierut whom they regarded as a real statesman. Danish diplomats in their reports analysed the economic situation in Poland, recorded economic reforms, and described the relations of Poland with Germany.
EN
The Polish-Danish diplomatic relations were officially established on 7 July 1945, when the Danish government acknowledged the Provisional Government of National Unity. The attempts to establish mutual relations started in June 1945, and the person who represented Poland was Jerzy Pański, the founder of the Association of Polish Patriots in Sweden and the representative of the information agency Polpress. Re-established Polish-Danish relations after WW II were dominated by economic contacts, because it was a difficult economic situation in both countries that made them start and continue the cooperation. In postwar Denmark there was a shortage of energy raw materials such as coal and coke, and the main trade partners of Denmark in the interwar period – Great Britain and Germany – were unable to satisfy the needs of Denmark. Danish politicians came up with an idea to obtain coal from Poland. Quite a few countries sought the delivery of coal at that time. Poland wanted to gain international recognition for its government, to reconstruct the country and to guarantee Poles deliveries of food. Agricultural and industrial articles constituted the basis of the Danish export. In the years 1945–1946 the first Polish-Danish trade contracts were made, which reestablished economic contacts, interrupted by the war. They outlined the direction of the cooperation for the next few years. The trade agreement of 29 August 1945 was a typical compensational contract – Poland exported coal and coke to Denmark, and in return Poland got butter, bacon, horses, cattle, seeds and fish. The total value of the turnover amounted to 54 million Danish crowns. The Polish-Danish trade and payment agreement of 7 October 1946 was more diversified , and the list of goods offered by both countries was more extensive. Poland saw to it that the list of products exported to Denmark was not so one-sided and based only on coal. Coal still constituted the basis of Polish export, but Denmark was interested in purchasing Polish zinc-plated sheet metal, glass and sanitary porcelain. The total value of the mutual exchange rose to 184 million Danish crowns. In the first postwar years Denmark was engaged in charity help for destroyed Poland. Danes gave food to children and the elderly, collected clothes, and what is most important they guaranteed medical help, thanks to which they won favour with Polish people.
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