A discussion on the role of the middle class in Poland started with the fall of Communism at the turn of the 1990s and continues to this day. The weakness of the middle class is regarded as a significant obstacle in the modernization of the country. On the other hand, its consolidation is seen as the chance to stabilize a new political system and to continue the economic reforms initiated 20 years ago. Political elites generally agree on the necessity of creating a strong middle class, which is surprising in a highly polarized Polish society. Expectations for the emergence of a strong middle class are similar with longing for a prince charming who would shape the new social order according to the rules of democracy and a free market economy. It’s important to notice that what we describe as “middle class” is a mixed community of people placed in the middle part of the social ladder. Because of such a large differentiation of this social community, the question remains: Does it make sense to promote the middle class as whole? Was the political accord in this case just a part of election rhetoric rather than real action?
This article contain extension of four hypothesis which explain phenomenon of fixed-term employment in Poland and its consequences for collective labour relations. It becomes to notice the Poland is unquestioned leader of fixed-term employment among the countries belong to EU. Empirical research results without any doubt indicate that this situation is accepted by employees and the reasons of this acceptation are the subject of analysis.
PL
Artykuł zawiera rozwinięcie czterech hipotez, które wyjaśniają zjawisko zatrunienia na czas określony w Polsce i jego konsekwencje dla zbiorowych stosunków pracy. Polska staje się niekwestionowanym liderem zatrudnienia na czas określony wśród krajów UE. Dane empiryczne wskazują, że taka sytuacja jest akceptowana przez pracowników, a powody ich akceptacji są przedmiotem pogłębionych analiz.
This article is concerning the changes of polish pension system set in motion in 1999. The pension systems has been divided two pillars, established on a ‘pay-as-you-go’ basis on the one hand, and ‘funded’ financing on the second. This division was described in new program system “Security through Diversity”. The main conclusion is, on the base of theory of social systems, that the pensioners security depends on broadly defined environment of pension system rather than internal configuration new pension system.
This text is concerned the solutions of the problems related to management of the public sphere. The pressure placed on effective solutions, on the one hand, and respect on the citizens rights, on the second, is characteristic for contemporary democracy. This situation create a lot of the tensions and the opponents call to different visions of social order. Economists much more often indicate cost-benefits analysis as a basic tool of decision making and sociologists have much more respect for democratic procedure. Do we need choose between different methods of decision making with the all negative consequences of this situation? My answer is negative and I will try to show why this choose is not good.
PL
Tekst poświęcony jest sposobom rozwiązywania problemów związanych z zarządzaniem sferą publiczną. We współczesnej demokracji nacisk kładzie się z jednej strony na rozwiązania efektywne, ale z drugiej zachodzi konieczność poszanowania woli obywateli. Sytuacja taka rodzi rozmaite napięcia, w której racje stron odwołują się do różnych wizji porządku społecznego. Ekonomiści coraz częściej odwołują się do analizy kosztów i korzyści jako podstawowego narzędzia podejmowania decyzji, a socjologowie częściej wskazują na procedury demokracji. Czy skazani jesteśmy zatem na wybór między różnymi metodami podejmowania decyzji ze wszystkimi tego negatywnymi konsekwencjami? Odpowiedź autora jest negatywna i próbuje on pokazać, dlaczego taki wybór nie jest właściwy.
This article is concerning the changes of polish pension system set in motion in 1999. The pension systems has been divided two pillars, established on a ‘pay-as-you-go’ basis on the one hand, and ‘funded’ financing on the second. This division was described in new program system “Security through Diversity”. The main conclusion is, on the base of theory of social systems, that the pensioners security depends on broadly defined environment of pension system rather than internal configuration new pension system.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy zmian w polskim systemie emerytalnym, zapoczątkowanych w 1999 r. System podzielono na tzw. dwa filary: pierwszy opiera się na zasadach "pay-as-you-go, a drugi na obowiązkowym kapitałowym oszczędzaniu co opisano w publikacji „Bezpieczeństwo dzięki różnorodności". Główny wniosek artykułu – na podstawie teorii systemów społecznych – jest ten, że bezpieczeństwo emerytów zależy od szeroko pojętego środowiska systemu emerytalnego, a nie konfiguracji wewnętrznej nowego systemu emerytalnego.
This article contain extension of four hypothesis which explain phenomenon of fixed-term employment in Poland and its consequences for collective labour relations. It becomes to notice the Poland is unquestioned leader of fixed-term employment among the countries belong to EU. Empirical research results without any doubt indicate that this situation is accepted by employees and the reasons of this acceptation are the subject of analysis.
Conflicts between ngo’s and public administration, and inside of the III sector, we should treat as something obvious. This phenomena we can much more understand if we abandon the language of analysis, in which the crucial role plays the civic society idea. Local conflicts are, first of all, the result of endeavours aiming to maximization particular interests, both ngo’s and public administration. The care for particular interests not necessarily to be opposite to common interest. Both side of the negotiation process should make agree the cooperation area take into account the main aims, as well as vehicles, which they handle.
The striving after abandoning the world was constantly accompanied by the ancient Christian spirituality. In monasticism the real abandonment of society is becoming one of the most important factors. Among the great monastic centers the monastery in Lérins plays a significant role in the formation of the spiritual tradition of the „separation” on the West. Eucherius, as one of the Lérins’ monks, makes the doctrine of rejection of the world one of the most significant points of his spirituality. One of his works was De contemptu mundi, where the Lérins writer represents an organic conception of the world and puts forward arguments against the world. In this article Eucherius of Lyons idea of contemptus mundi and reasons that could affect his thinking have been analyzed.
The analysis of the writings of Tertullian at an angle of his attitude towards women encounters a lot of difficulties. On one side when addressing to women he uses rather waspish, incisive language sometimes even with a rhetorical emphasis. We can see it at some instructive, moral fragments of the letters such as De cultu feminarum or De virginibus velandis. Superficial reading of these versets could lead up to a conclusion about antifeminism of Tertullian. On the other side he highly appreciates women because of their participation by body and sole at the God’s redemption and universal resurrection. It is clearly seen at some of his theological works such as, for example, De resurrectione mortuorum. Tertullian is not a writer who habitually looks for and show every negative characteristic feature of woman’s character. All his manifestations of distrust towards women derive rather from his own character and prepossession to moral rigorism and partially reflect psyche of people constituting Christian communities at II and III centuries after Christ. At the same time we could say that the apparent discrepancy of his point of view towards women results not only from gradual changing of his attitude to women but mainly from the character of his works and aims he wanted to achieve.
Tertullian did not bequeath any treaty directly about Church and organization of it. Well, he certainly did not regard it as something required. The aggregate of his works quite precise shows how Church in North Africa functioned in II and III century. In his works term presbyter it seems to be ultimately stated. The term determines the second level of beadle, subordinate authority of supervisor of community – pontiff. For that reason, presbyters did not arouse our author, who frequently lists them in relation with the superior. They participated in actions appropriate for pontiff such as education or gave baptism to somebody. Moreover, they confirm Christian marriage and they achieve intercessory function while public expiation sinners. However, they probably do not possess power to absolve worshippers. Tertullian especially point out their disciplinary function, they had to provide peace in the community although they create with pontiff and deaconry the hierarchy in Church.
PL
Tertulian nie pozostawił po sobie żadnego traktatu dotyczącego sensu stricto Kościoła i jego organizacji. Z pewnością nie widział takiej potrzeby. Całokształt jego twórczości daje jednak wystarczająco precyzyjny obraz organizacji kościelnej w Afryce Północnej na przełomie II i III w. Termin presbyter w dziełach Kartagińczyka wydaje się już ostatecznie ustalony. Jest on użyty przez niego na określenie urzędu kościelnego drugiego stopnia, podporządkowanego we wszystkim władzy przełożonego wspólnoty-biskupa. Z tego też powodu prezbiterzy nie wzbudzają większego zainteresowania naszego autora, który często wymienia ich tylko w relacji do zwierzchnika wspólnoty. Uczestniczą oni w czynnościach ministerialnych właściwych biskupowi, takich jak nauczanie, udzielanie chrztu czy prawdopodobnie sprawowanie eucharystii. Ponadto prezbiterzy uczestniczą w zatwierdzaniu chrześcijańskich małżeństw oraz spełniają rolę wstawienniczą podczas publicznej pokuty grzeszników. Nie posiadają oni jednak władzy odpuszczania grzechów. Pomimo tego, iż prezbiterzy wraz z biskupem i diakonami tworzą hierarchię w Kościele, to Tertulian zasadniczo podkreśla ich rolę dyscyplinarną, mającą zapewnić pokój we wspólnocie.
Herein the article it is given the analyses of the institution of widows and status of virgins. A special attention is paid to their mutual relations and status at the first centuries of the Church. On the basis of the above mentioned analyses we can see how the mutual relations between them have been changed during centuries. Since the times of the Apostles the widows have been surrounded by a special care and played a very important role at the community. In regard of the great effort which widows, who had been already acquainted with the marital consumption, had to make to keep abstinence their value was greater than value of virgins. A special attention to this fact was paid by Tertullian and Clemens of Alexandria. In the course of time the situation has been slowly changing. The change of the ministerial status at the Church and the edict of toleration issued by Galerius in the year 311 brought to a gradual acceptance by virgins of the status which earlier had been a privilege of widows. The process of valorization was escalating more and more simultaneously with the development of monasteries and monastic life at the IVth century.
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