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Altruizm w koncepcji socjobiologicznej

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EN
Sociobiology is a theory which has a bigger and bigger influence on the social sciences, and recently on social psychology. The paper seeks to show altruism as regards the assumptions of that conception. Since the question of sociobiology does not occupy too much place in Polish psychological literature, the paper has been prefaced by a short historical outline of the problem. The sociobiological conception undertakes the problems of altruism, asking first of all, whether it is an adaptive behaviour. The representatives of that theory suggest that there are two types of altruistic behaviour which may be adaptive: 1) A behaviour that increase the of one’s own offspring to survive, 2) altruistic behaviour which will be reciprocated. Wilson, the founder and main representative of that theory, was convinced that his sociobiological theory was a “supplement of The Darwinian revolution”. He would perceive that supplementation in the fact that he managed to explain in purely biological categories the following human behaviour: altruism, religiosity and values. He believed that they undergo natural selection. In the closing part of the paper we find a critical reference to Wilson’s standpoints and the sociological conception. It has been shown that altruism, apart from biological explanations given by sociologists, may by accompanied by psychological and social explanations. The paper stresses that altruism my be an outcome of man’s ability to transcend himself, to overcome his own biological conditions. Many authors, e.g. Gould (cf. Mussen, Eisenberg-Berg, 1977), think that the explanation of human social behaviours in terms of heredity is only probable, but one has to be aware that there are others, “non-genetic” attempts at an explanation of those behaviours and they are equally probable.
EN
The paper is a review of findings pertaining to the links between altruism and social and situational variables. Altruism is taken here to mean a person’s activity on behalf of other people, an activity that is beneficial for them, without expecting any rewards in return. The person who is helping should be aware of that, his or her action must be free and must be a value in itself for that person. The paper focuses our attention on the following social variables: the number of participants (observers) in some unlucky event; the fact whether the onlookers of the unlucky event know one another; observation of some charitable actions in the near past, rush, mood (transitory affective states), urbanization and age. Taking into account the number of people, it turned out that the presence of others may diminish motivation for giving help. Moreover, the greater number of observers makes it that the event is perceived as less dangerous. This observation allows psychologists to formulate the effect of the “diffusion of responsibility”. Another factor, on which attention has been focused, is that the time during which help is given depends on whether the observers of the unlucky event know one another. When the observers of some unlucky incident are strangers, it may diminish their readiness to bring help. Those who had the opportunity to observe in the near past some charities, charitable actions, are more likely to adopt altruistic attitudes. Still another factor which affects giving help is rush and the goal of that rush, the importance of the goal they are to accomplish. Another variable affecting the readiness to bring help is mood (transitory affective states). It has been noticed that a sad mood causes in children a reduction in altruistic activities, and in adults the opposite effects, ie. they become more ready to be altruists. Numerous researches on the influence of urbanization on the readiness to bring help have proved that inhabitants of villages and small towns are more altruistic than inhabitants of big towns. If it comes to sex, men are shown to be involved in other forms of help than women. The situations which demand courage, reflex and firmness are more specific of men, whereas women engage themselves to tasks related to concern, care and commitment.
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Niepokój a religijność

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PL
Wielu autorów, np. Horney (1976, s. 53), Kępiński (1987, s. 298), Argyle (1999), dowodzi, że lęk wywiera duży wpływ na zachowania człowieka. Argyle, znany badacz stosunków międzyludzkich, pisze o następujących konsekwencjach wysokiego poziomu niepokoju i lęku: izolowanie się od innych, brak przyjaciół, egocentryzm, społeczne nieprzystosowanie, mała asertywność, skłonność do submisji. R. B. Cattell twierdzi, że osoba przeżywająca lęk charakterologiczny (czysty) charakteryzuje się obniżoną sprawnością do przystosowania się, poczuciem niepewności, brakiem zaufania do siebie i innych. Biorąc pod uwagę powyższe, podjęto temat związku między niepokojem a religijnością rozumianą jako przeżywane relacje do Boga. Celem analiz jest poszukiwanie powiązań między poziomem przeżywanego przez człowieka lęku ogólnego (EN), jawnego (NJ) i ukrytego (NU) (badanego Arkuszem Niepokoju Cattella) a przeżywanymi relacjami do Boga (badanego Kwestionariuszem Relacji Religijnych Hutsebauta). Uzyskane wyniki wykazują, że biorąc pod uwagę niepokój ogólny, jawny i ukryty oraz wyodrębnione ze względu na płeć podgrupy, na siedem badanych wymiarów relacji religijnych powiązania istotne statystycznie istnieją z czterema skalami: buntowniczością, winą-lękiem, identyfikacją i współhumanitarnością. Przy czym dwie pierwsze skalę wiążą się z niepokojem dodatnio (dodatnie współczynniki korelacji), natomiast dwie następne mają wartość ujemną.
EN
This article undertakes the issue of associations between anxiety and religiosity, understood as experiencing the relationship with God. According to numerous authors, e.g. Horney (1976, p. 53), Kępiński (1987, p. 298), Argyle (1999), anxiety exerts strong influence on human behaviour. Argyle, the famous researcher of interpersonal relationships, points to such consequences of high anxiety as isolation from others, lack of friends, egocentrism, deficits of social adaptation, low assertiveness, tendency to submissiveness. R. B. Cattell holds that individuals with high characterological anxiety reveal low efficiency in adaptation processes, lack of self-confidence, distrust in oneself and others. The objective of the study presented in this article was to investigate associations between general, overt and covert anxiety (IPAT Anxiety Scale by Cattell) and features of the relationship with God (The Scale of Relationship to God by D. Hutsebaut). The results showed statistically significant associations between general, overt and covert anxiety, gender and four dimensions of religiosity: rebelliousness, guilt, identification, cohumanity. The first two scales showed positive correlations with anxiety and the latter two scales - negative correlations.
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Altruizm i jego pomiar. Kwestionariusz A-N

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Roczniki Psychologiczne
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2005
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vol. 8
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issue 1
121-144
PL
Treścią niniejszego artykułu jest zagadnienie związane z pomiarem intensywności zachowań altruistycznych. Zachowanie altruistyczne jest rozumiane jako działanie świadome i dobrowolne na rzecz innych ludzi, które przynosi korzyści innym, a osoba działająca nie oczekuje w zamian na zewnętrzne nagrody, gdyż działanie pomocne jest dla niej wartścią samą w sobie. Pomiar zachowań altruistycznych w literaturze przedmiotu ma dwie tradycje: jedna to badania eksperymentalne dotyczące sytuacji społecznych; druga to tradycja związana z badaniem testowym opartym na samoopisie. Odwołując się do tej drugiej tradycji oraz do już istniejących w literaturze przedmiotu wzorów (por. Karyłowski, 1982a; Szuster, 2002), skonstruowano skalę do mierzenia altruizmu, która została opisana w artykule. Kwestionariusz A – N składa się z dwóch części. W pierwszej jest 9 opowiadań; do każdego opowiadania dołączono zestaw sześciu gotowych odpowiedzi, wyrażających różne nasilenia postawy altruistycznej. Część druga zawiera 8 opowiadań (zadaniem osoby badanej jest wyrażenie opinii na 7-stopniowej skali typu Likerta, w jakim stopniu zgadza się lub nie zgadza się z decyzją podjętą przez bohatera opowiadania). Wynik ogólny jest łączną sumą punktów uzyskanych przez osobę badaną w części pierwszej i drugiej. Mieści się on w przedziale 17-110 pkt, gdzie wynik najniższy oznacza brak altruizmu, zaś wynik z drugiego bieguna – najwyższy poziom altruizmu. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych procedur stwierdzono, że skonstruowany test jest trafnym narzędziem do przewidywania szerokiego zakresu zachowań altruistycznych oraz poziomu jego natężenia, a obliczone współczynniki rzetelności dowodzą, że jest to również narzędzie odznaczające się bardzo wysoką rzetelnością.
EN
The paper focuses on the issue of the measurement of the intensity of altruistic behaviours. An altruistic behaviour is understood as a conscious and voluntary act for the benefit of other persons. The performer does not expect any external rewards since providing aid is a value itself. Measurement of altruistic behaviours has two traditions in the relevant literature. One is associated with experimental research concerning social situations, the other is connected with testing based on self-reports. This paper resorts to the latter tradition and describes the process of constructing a questionnaire to measure altruism. Before constructing the questionnaire other similar existing tools were reviewed (cf. Karyłowski 1982a; Szuster 2002). The Questionnaire A – N consists of two parts. Part one contains nine stories, each with six answers provided to reflect various degrees of intensity of the altruistic attitude. Part two contains eight stories. In part two, the examined person has to indicate on the 7-point Likert-type scale to what extent he/she agrees with the decision made by a character of each story. The total score is the sum of the scores obtained in both parts. It can range from 17 to 110, where the lower pole indicates lack of altruism and the higher pole – the highest level of altruism. The article presents psychometric properties of the questionnaire – its reliability and validity. The results show that this questionnaire is a valid tool in predicting a wide range of altruistic behaviours and reliability coefficients also prove its high reliability.
EN
D. Wulff (1991) developed a notion of post–critical beliefs as a proposal for the description of religion in the light of the progress of secularization and socio–cultural changes. According to his theory, we can situate(place) potential attitudes toward religion in a two–dimensional space. The vertical dimension stands for Inclusion vs. Exclusion of Transcendence, and the horizontal one—for the way an individual interprets religious content: Literal vs. Symbolic. In this way, the two dimensions determine four quadrants, each reflecting a potential attitude towards religion, operationalized by D. Hutsebaut (1996) in the Post–Critical Belief Scale (PCBS) as: Orthodoxy, External Critique, Relativism and Second Naiveté. The research presented in this paper is our attempt at fi n ding an answer to the question whether the religious attitudes determined by Wulff are related to self–consciousness types. We tested 159 adult individuals by means of the PCBS scale by D. Hutsebaut and the Self–consciousness scale (O–Z scale) by Z. Zaborowski and Z. Oleszkiewicz. The results of these tests are that the refl ective type of self–consciousness correlated positively with Orthodoxy and Second Naiveté and negatively with External Critique and Relativism.
PL
Przedmiotem prezentowanych badań jest analiza powiązań między poczuciem osamotnienia a poziomem i strukturą niepokoju u homoseksualnych mężczyzn. W badaniach uczestniczyło 72 homoseksualnych mężczyzn w wieku od 18 do 41 lat. Zastosowano Arkusz Samopoznania R. B. Cattella i Skalę Samotności w opracowaniu J. de Jon-Gierveld i F. Komphuis. Przeprowadzone analizy wykazały obecność powiązań między niepokojem i poczuciem osamotnienia. Czynnik niepokoju wyjaśniał 28% wariancji wyników w zakresie poczucia osamotnienia u badanych homoseksualnych mężczyzn.
EN
The present study focuses on the relationship between sense of loneliness and level and structure of anxiety in homosexual men. Seventy-two homosexual men, aged from 18 to 41, took part in the study and were investigated with the IPAT Scale and De Jong-Gierveld's Loneliness Scale. The sexual orientation of each participant was determined by his direct declaration. The results of this study show that anxiety correlated with the level of loneliness and accounted for approximately 28% of variance in loneliness among homosexual men.
EN
The article presents the connections of the structure of value systems of the members of Alcoholics Anonymous wives and the quality and durability of their marriages. The studies make use of: Portrait Values Questionnaire by Schwartz (PVQ-40, adapted in 2011 by Cieciuch and Zaleski) and the Scale of the Quality and Durability of Marriage by Ryś. In order to perform correlation analysis, answers of 286 wives of members of Alcoholics Anonymous were considered. The results presented here confirm all of the posed hypotheses – the structure of value systems of AA wives is connected to the quality and durability of their marriages (simulation excluded).
PL
Artykuł prezentuje powiązania systemu wartości i jakości oraz trwałości związków małżeńskich żon Anonimowych Alkoholików. W badaniach wykorzystano Portretowy Kwestionariusz Wartości S. Schwartza (PVQ-40; adaptowany w 2011 r. przez Cieciucha i Zaleskiego) oraz Skalą Jakości i Trwałości Małżeństwa, autorstwa Ryś. Celem dokonania analiz korelacyjnych, uwzględniono odpowiedzi 286 żon Anonimowych Alkoholików. Prezentowane wyniki badań potwierdzają wszystkie hipotezy eksploracyjne – struktura systemu wartości żon AA jest powiązana z jakością i trwałością ich związków małżeńskich (wyłączając stymulację).
EN
The main purpose of the analysis presented in this paper is to search for connections between religiosity and the attitude to death penalty. The paper focuses on the question: is there any connection between one’s religiosity and his (her) attitude to death penalty. The general assumption was that there is some connection between these variables. To verify the hypotheses that had been assumed, 100 respondents (55 women and 45 men) were tested by the following methods: The Scale of Relationship to God by D. Hutsebaut, the Religious Attitudes Scale by W. Prężyna, The Scale of Personal Religiousness by R. Jaworski and Scale of Attitudes to Death Penalty by Śliwak, Korczyński. The fi ndings confi rmed the main assumption that there is a connection between variables. Others hypotheses were partially confi rmed. Some diff erences were observed between the group of men and the group of women.
PL
Celem prezentowanych w tym artykule analiz było poszukiwanie powiązań pomiędzy religijnością a postawą wobec kary śmierci. Problem badawczy można oddać w pytaniu: Czy istnieje zależność pomiędzy religijnością a postawą wobec kary śmierci? W artykule sformułowano pięć hipotez i w celu ich weryfi kacji zastosowano następujące narzędzia badawcze: Skalę Intensywności Postawy Religijnej – W. Prężyny, Skalę Relacji do Boga – D. Hutsebauta, Skalę Religijności Personalnej – R. Jaworskiego oraz Kwestionariusz Postaw wobec Kary Śmierci – w opracowaniu autorów artykułu. Ogółem przebadano 100 osób, wśród nich było 55 kobiet oraz 45 mężczyzn. Średni wiek wyniósł 31,59 (SD = 9,01). Analiza wyników niniejszej pracy pozwala dosyć jednoznacznie stwierdzić, że istnieją powiązania między analizowanymi zmiennymi, tzn. postawą wobec kary śmierci a religijnością. Pozostałe hipotezy potwierdziły się tylko częściowo. W wielu przypadkach obraz powiązań w podgrupie kobiet był różny niż w podgrupie mężczyzn.
PL
The aim of the study is to analyze motivation for undertaking activities to help others by people involved in various forms of volunteer work. We analyzed two sources of motivation: moral endo‒exocentrism and the value system among three groups: hospice, missionary and sports volunteers. The study involved 173 people between 16 to 77 years of age, 59 giving service in a hospice, 63 in missionary activities and 51 as sports volunteers. We applied the Moral Endo-Exocentrism Questionnaire (MEEQ) by Karyłowski, Górski and Wasiak and the Portraits Questionnaire (PVQ) by Schwartz. The study showed higher levels of exocentric than endocentric motivation among the three groups of volunteers. However, the intergroup value preference comparison revealed 7 values which significantly differentiated hospice, missionary and sports volunteers: Tradition, Hedonism, Success, Power, Self-Directing, Stimulation and Universalism.
PL
The problem discussed in this article concerns the relationship between hope and action styles in adolescents. An action style is a way in which man perceives and responds to the outside world, and it may be aimed at securing oneself or interacting with the surroundings. The main aim of this analysis was to find out if, and to what degree, the level of hope is connected with action styles. The following hypotheses are proposed: H – 1. There is a relationship between hope and an action style. H- 2. Persons with different types of hope are characterised by different styles of action. H – 3. Persons with a high level of hope have a cooperation­‑oriented style. H – 4. Persons with a low level of hope are often characterised by a style aimed at protecting themselves. 149 persons aged 17 – 18 participated in the study. The following methods were used: the Basic Hope Inventory (BHI-12) – compiled by Trzebiński and M. Zięba, the Hope for Success Questionnaire (KNS) – adaptation of C. R. Snyder’s questionnaire made by M. Łaguna, J. Trzebiński and M. Zięba, as well as the Action Styles Questionnaire by Z. Uchnast. The results obtained have allowed the researchers to form the opinion that hope helps individuals function better in the world. The way in which a person perceives the world and their own capabilities translates into the style of action which they choose. A person who is full of hope seeks self­‑actualisation as well as cooperation with others.
EN
The aim of this study is to examine the dependence between self-esteem of Internet users and their use of the Internet. The issue was taken due to its timeliness. The Internet and its resources attract the attention of the majority of people from different age groups. The study group consisted of 120 people, of which 98 have an account on social networks. The research involved the Multidimensional MSEI Self-Assessment Questionnaire (used for self-assessment) and a questionnaire for the use of various forms of the Internet, constructed for the needs of the work. The analysis of the results showed no statistically significant relationship between the general level of self-esteem and the frequency of Internet use. Relationships were, however, noticed between some dimensions of self-esteem and the time of using the network. There were also found statistically significant correlations between the assessment of own admiration abilities and activity on social networks.
EN
Contemporary world poses to people new challenges. The dynamic development of new technologies and social changes brings risk of isolation of men and women. It also requires from the people the ability to adapt to new situations. This article focuses on the problem of correlation between the feeling of isolation and the level of social adaptation. The reflexion on both phenomena may contribute to better understanding, explanation, and counteraction against negative effects of the problem. The results of the research show a clear correlation between both factors mentioned above. All of the relevant correlations are negative. This means that people who have high level of feeling of isolation have lower level of social adaptation. This signifies that higher levels of feeling of isolation goes hand in hand with poorer levels of social adaptation. The analysis of interrelatedness on the subgroup level individualized on the sex criterion shows that women have significantly more connections between variables mentioned above than men.
EN
Objectives: Religiosity may serve as a personal source of support when people face a life-threatening illness, but it can also elicit stress. The main aim of this study is to show how various religious dimensions interplay in predicting death anxiety in patients diagnosed as having cancer. Material and Methods: In the cross‐sectional, descriptive‐analytical research, 141 Polish patients who were hospitalized due to cancer were selected using sequential convenience sampling. Data were collected using the Centrality of Religiosity Scale, Religious Comfort and Strain Scale, and the Death Anxiety and Dying Distress Scale. Results: The authors’ results show that the effect of the centrality of religiosity on death anxiety is non-linear. The authors can also confirm the mediating role of religious comfort and struggles in the relationship between the centrality of religiosity and death anxiety. Conclusions: Thus, religious struggles appear to weaken the effect of religion on death anxiety, whereas religious comfort (contrary to expectation) does not enhance it.
EN
The paper starts with an attempt to develop a hypothetical cognitive structure of mental resiliency, called psycho-immunological system, which plays both a reactive (coping with difficult health situations) and proactive (health protection) role in relation to the human somato-immunological system. In order to answer the question: is the psycho-immunological system invariant in two neighbouring cultures, Slovakia and Poland, the authors propose the psychometric operationalization of theoretical constructs of the psycho-immunological system in the form of The Scale of Psycho-immunological Structure (SPS) in both countries. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that four factors of the scale are equivalent in both samples on the structural level.
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