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1

Z dziejów tematyki górskiej w literaturze czeskiej. František Palacký i Milota Zdirad Polák

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2018
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vol. 12
121-147
EN
The literature of the Czech national revival produced a unique type of cestopis (travel account), which, from a Polish point of view, could be regarded as an equivalent of accounts of Polish Romantic travels of fellow countrymen across their country. In the Czech literature we can distinguish a clear thematic group associated with the Karkonosze mountains. It includes M.S. Patrčky’s O Krkonošských horách (1823), Josef Myslimír Ludvík’s Myslimír, po horách krkonošských putující (1824), Karel Slavoj Amerling’s Cesta na Sněžku (1832), Karel Hynek Mácha’s Pouť Krkonošská (1833–34), František Tomsa Přátelské dopisy z cesty na Sněžku (1845), Josef Frič’s Cesta přes Friedland na Krkonoše (1846), and Karel Hanuš’s Cesta na Sněžku (1847). These works testify to an expansion of themes tackled by literature during the so-called national revival. Characteristic forms of the period conformed to the Classical, pre-Romantic and Romantic conventions. One of the most interesting themes tackled by literature in those days were the mountains. In line with the spirit of national revival, the Czech cult of the domestic was expressed in the linking of the homeland and its landscape with important aspects of Czech national identity. This convention of referring, as means of self-identification, to spatial symbolism and its vocabulary was visible in the Czech and Slovak culture in several aspects. The vocabulary of Czech national symbols now included the Karkonosze mountains, Šumava or the Bohemian Forest, the Tatras and the Blanik hill. František Palacký referred to landscape-linked symbolism in his ode Na horu Radhošť, added to his youthful work, written together with Pavel Josef Šafařík, Počátkové českého básnictví obzvláště prosodie (1818). The poem formally served as an example illustrating theoretical analyses of poetry included in the study in question. Using the fact that Radhošť was a mountain in Moravia, Palacký included the mountain as a motif in a rather unique founding myth associated with the local Moravian patriotism. Thus mountains became a representative motif of the literature of the Czech national revival. When it comes to Czech poetry, mountain motifs were introduced into it on a broader scale for the first time by Milota Zdirad Polák (Matěj Polák, 1788–1856) in his descriptive poem Vznešenost přírody (1819). Polák’s novelty lay in his introduction into Czech literature of a new genre, descriptive poem, as well as linguistic experiments (neologisms) thanks to which he developed his own poetic language. Using the category of the sublime as a tool to interpret the natural phenomena he described, Polák sought to demonstrate the richness of the forms of the world, their complexity and diversity. That is why the catalogue of motifs he used is vast. It accorded an appropriate place to the mountains with a brave attempt to concretise their motif: fragments of the poem deal with the Alps, a description of the Karkonosze mountains is highlighted and there is also a motif of volcanic eruption. Undoubtedly the most interesting and artistically the most valuable is an extensive fragment of the poem devoted to the Karkonosze mountains. The fear of the horror of high mountains, the Alps, described in the poem, found its equivalent in the writings of Jan Kollár (1793–1852), who presented his emotions associated with his stay in the Alps in an account of an 1841 journey to Italy (Cestopis obsahující cestu do Horní Italie a odtud přes Tyrolsko a Bavorsko, se zvláštním ohledem na slavjanské živly roku 1841 konanou, Budin 1843). Both writers, Polák and Kollár, were hugely impressed by the mountains, but this did not lead to any Romantic reflection on their part.
2

Kilka uwag o dawnych wycieczkach na Śnieżkę w Karkonoszach

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2017
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vol. 11
15-41
EN
The article is devoted to the earliest period (17th–18th centuries) of treks to Śnieżka in the Karkonosze Mountains. The period ended with the first manifestations of pre-Romantic and Romantic interest in the mountain (Caspar David Friedrich, Theodor Körner, Kazimierz Brodziński), which will not be discussed here. The author analyses entries in the Śnieżka guest books published in 1737 in Jelenia Góra as Vergnügte und unvergnügte Reisen auf das Weltberuffene Schlesische RiesenGebirge welche von 1696 bis 1737. Theils daselbst den Allerhöchsten zu preisen, theils die erstaunenden Wunder der Natur zu betrachten, theils sich eine Gemüthsvergnügung oder Leibesbewegung zu machen, theils den beruffenen Riebezahl auszukundschafften, von allerhand Liebhabern angestellet worden sind. Die sich den zu einem beständigen Andenken in die daselbst befindlichen Schneekoppen-Bücher Namentlich und meistens mit beyläufigen merkwündigen Gedanken in gebundener Rede eingeschrieben haben. Auf vieles Verlangen heraus gegeben, und mit einigen bekannten und unbekannten Historien von dem abentheurlichen Rieben-Zahl vergesellschaftet. Nebst einer Vorrede: Von den Wundern, Schönheiten, Vortrefflichkeiten und der natürlichen Beschaffenheit dieser Gebirge. Drawing on selected quotes the author has compiled a preliminary typology of the behaviour of tourists in the past as well as their reactions to the landscape. The article also depicts some elements of customs that emerged in Samuel’s Hut on the Złótówka Meadow, the last shelter provided for those heading for Śnieżka.
3

Potopu świata fale i Mer de Glace. O pewnym sposobie obrazowania górskiego pejzażu

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2018
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vol. 12
377-388
EN
When describing the Glacier du Bois seen for the first time, Wiliam Windham (1741) compared it to a lake suddenly bound by ice. In a similar function Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1786) compared the glacier to a suddenly frozen sea. These descriptions gave rise to the name Mer de Glace, popularised from the early 19th century. In some respects an analogous phenomenon in poetry was the use of a metaphor in which a sudden arrest of an ascending motion of a being (flood waters, space rocket) constitutes a poetic image (Adam Mickiewicz, Julian Korsak, Wincenty Pol, Wisława Szymborska).
4

Od Filipa V Macedońskiego do Horacego de Saussure’a, od Horacego do Albrechta Hallera. O dziejach poznawania i zdobywania gór

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2015
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vol. 9
11 - 50
EN
The paper deals with a long, pre-Romantic period in the history of mountain exploration from Antiquity to the first recorded ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786. The author focuses on the problem of model approach to the perception of mountains (utilitarian, metaphysical and emotional, scientific, conquering, aesthetic). He attempts to provide a typology of cultural phenomena from the period preceding both the scientific exploration of the mountains and the emerging aesthetic fascination, which entered its mature phase in the Romantic era. The phenomena in question are presented on the basis of an analysis of transformations in the attitude to mountains. This is linked to the history of mountain tourism and origins of mountaineering. The author analyses the issue, distinguishing two historically changing aspects of the motivation behind mountain exploration and climbing — the first aspect is utilitarian (pragmatic), while in the other mountaineering is associated with an emotional and aesthetic need to be in the mountains as an end in itself. The latter has had a huge impact on the exploration of the mountains and ways of climbing them; it also provides the background for the history of mountaineering and — more broadly — mountain tourism. When discussing the successive models of seeing and exploring the mountains, the author presents examples of how they were made sacred mountains in primitive cultures. He describes their Christianisation in the Middle Ages and demonological interpretation of the mountains related to it. In addition, he discusses the most important achievements of climbers anticipating the birth of modern mountaineering as well as characteristic facts from the history of mountain tourism. What can be considered the beginning of this great period in the history of mountain exploration was Philip V of Macedonia’s ascent in 217 of Haemus (Hemus, Musala), an event described by Livy (Ab urbe condida, 40, 21). The literary equivalent of the event is Horace’s ode To Taliarchus (I, 9). The final date of this “initial” period must be theday of the first truly great mountaineering accomplishment: the ascent of Mont Blanc on 8 August 1786, at 18:23, by a collector of crystals from Chamonix, Jacques Balmat (1762–1834) and a doctor, Michel Paccard (1762–1834). Among the earliest medieval (recorded!) climbs the most important, from a competitive point of view, was the ascent by Antoine de Ville (with companions) of the soaring Mont Aiguille (2086.7 metres above sea level) in the Dauphiné. The oldest illustration depicting a glacier is a copperplate by Joseph Plepp (1595–1642), Abbildung des Gletschers im Grindelwaldt in der Herschafft Bern. Effigies montis glacigenae in Grindelia (Unterer Grindelwaldgletscher), published in Topographia Helvetiae, Rhaetiae et Valesiae (1654). Strangely enough, so far no one has noted the surprising fact that a glacier is the most important element of the landscape depicted by Benozzo Gozzoli (1420–ca 1498) in his fresco Procession of the Magi (1497–1498) at the Palazzo Medici (Cappella dei Magi, Palazzo Medici-Riccardi) in Florence. In the paper the author points to a curious “bipolarity” of publications from ca 1600–ca 1750 dealing with the mountains. He examines the works and achievements of e.g. Hans R. Rebmann, Athanasius Kircher SJ, Johann Scheuchzer and Elie Bertrand. The demonological aspect connected with interpretations of phenomena occurring in the mountains was absent from works by Protestant naturalists, who obviously had nothing to do with the Counter-Reformation. This “confessional aspect” in the history of mountaineering has been very lightly touched upon so far, with scholars only pointing to the fact that demonological perception of the Alps was completely alien to English tourists visiting the Alps in the second half of the 18th century in ever greater numbers. The author also discusses literary descriptions of trips to the mountains in famous literary works anticipating the emergence of mountaineering literature (Dante, Petrarch, Albrecht Haller, Jean-Jacques Rousseau).
5

Alpinizm, turystyka, literatura na przełomie XIX i XX wieku — związki i zależności. Wstępny zarys problematyki

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2016
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vol. 10
15-38
EN
The second half of the 19th and the early 20th century were marked by extremely significant changes in mountaineering, tourism and literature, changes which can be described metaphorically as the vanguard of 20th-century modernity. Of great importance to the development of both mountaineering and mountain tourism was the creation of associations bringing together tourists and mountaineers, mountain lovers. The associations focused mainly on promoting mountain tourism, making the mountains more accessible (building paths, trails, hostels) and trying to protect the mountains against the effects of human impact and other civilisational processes — economic, social and technological. The increasingly evident division into mountaineering (exploring the mountains by climbing them) and tourism, and the spread of this tourism in all mountain ranges in Europe made mountaineering aspecialised form of communing with the mountains, requiring special qualifications and equipment. At the same mountain tourism became amulti-layered phe­nomenon, as it encompassed, in addition to the “classic” tourism “with backpacks”, resort tourism involving walks, atype of tourism playing an important role in socialising and styles of behaviour, completely different from the models characteristic of tourism in the first half of the 19th century. This led to the emergence of characteristic styles of this tourism, which was becoming an important element of bourgeois popular culture, aprocess that immediately resonated in literature. In the second half of the 19th and the first decade of the 20th century the substantial growth in the number of tourists arriving in mountain villages led to their rapid civilisational and economic development. However, the concept of building mountain railways that were to bring people closer to the most precious asset of the mountains — their intact primeval nature — was asimple extension of the sedentary lifestyle. The development of mountaineering consisted in traversing increasingly difficult routes. This involved not just the ordinary climbing of peaks, but traversing mountain walls. In 1880 and 1881, Albert Frederick Mummery, climbing Grands Charmoz (3,455 m) and Grépon (3,482 m), became the first man to traverse extremely difficult routes (Grade 5 in the Welzenbach scale). In 1884 Walter Parry Haskett Smith decided to traverse agrade 3 (difficult) route on his own and two years later he climbed the twenty-metre Lapes Needle in the Lake District, England, which gave rise to competitive climbing, adiscipline distinct from mountaineering. Mountaineers also produced literary works (Eugčne Rambert). The so-called “Alpine literature” (“la littérature alpestre”) encompassed, as its unique variety, par excellence Alpine literature providing an image of the mountains from the point of view of mountaineering and way of approaching mountaineering. Its leading exponents were Edward Whymper and Leslie Stephen; Albert Frederic Mummery (1855–1895) won considerable renown as the author of My climbs in the Alps and Caucasus (1895) as did Henry Russel-Killough (1834–1909) regarded as excellent writer and aman who made a great contribution to the exploration of the Pyrenees (Souvenirs d’un Montagnard, 1908). On the other hand, the ideological motivation of Polish mountaineering echoed with the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer and Henri Bergson, introducing the subject of mountain climbing into highbrow literature.
6

„Co wadzi, póki lata nie zajdą leniwe…” Szkic o Alpach w literaturze polskiej (od Jana Kochanowskiego do Wacława Rolicz-Liedera)

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Kolbuszewski J.
Prace Literackie
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2015
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vol. 55
35 - 60
EN
Although Alpine topics do not occupy a prominent place in Polish literature and it would be difficult to speak of any Alpine tradition in Poland, similar to the one associated with the Tatra Mountains, yet a historical and literary review of Alpine motifs in Polish literature suggests that the uniqueness and beauty of these mountains were a source of very strong aesthetic experiences. Alpine themes appear in the works of writers and poets primarily of the Romantic and Young Poland periods, with visits to the Alps serving for some authors as a school of poetry and artistic maturity, as exemplified by the Alpine works of Jan Kasprowicz and Władysław Orkan. The history of Alpine themes in Polish literature from the 16th (Jan Kochanowski) to the late 19th and early 20th centuries was associated with the history and nature of Polish mountain tourism. Although there are many cognitive and aesthetic values in Alpine works, especially in poetry, as a comprehensive topic they have not been studied separately and in this respect particularly worthy of note is Peter Brang’s Landschaft und Lyrik. Die Schweiz in Gedichten der Slaven. Eine komentetierte Anthologie.(1998). There are also important studies by Stanisław Makowski and Leszek Libera devoted to Swiss themes in Juliusz Słowacki’s oeuvre. Tourist escapades of Polish writers and poets were not particularly revealing. A big achievement in this respect came with the ascent of Aiguille de Midi by Antoni Malczewski and his ascent of Mont Blanc (tenth climber to accomplish that, 1818). Usually, Polish writers and poets followed routes commonly regarded as attractive and associated with objects (places) which were part of an established canon in the mid-19th century. This is why those Polish works with Alpine themes were not always of the highest quality and represent a classic catalogue of motifs appearing in Alpine literature (C.-E. Engel’s term, La Littérature alpestre en France et en Angleterre au XVIIIe et au XIXe siècle, 1931), though there are some outstanding works among them (by Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Wacław Rolicz-Lieder). Works with Alpine themes did play a part in the shaping of the poetic language of the Young Poland period (J.J. Lipski’s stories devoted to Jan Kasprowicz). In addition, such literary works have an important cognitive value (picture of cultural phenomena).
7

Zapomniany polski przekład poematu Albrechta von Hallera

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2010
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vol. 5
13-27
EN
The once famous poem by Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), Die Alpen (The Alps, 1732) played an important part in the history of both Alpine literature and of Alpine tourism, but, first of all, in the spread of the myth of Switzerland as a land of freedom. Its author came from Bern; he was a distinguished scholar, professor at the Göttingen University (where he lectured in anatomy, surgery and botany), as well as a talented poet. Though his Alpine poem quickly became famous all over Europe, it remained unknown in Poland. When showing the life of the Alpine highlanders, the poet idealised it in the spirit of sentimentalism but made the background of this idyllic vision in the poem – the Alpine landscape – natural and introduced important realistic features into the image of the highlanders’ life in accordance with nature. The Alps or the picture of happiness of the people of Switzerland had quite an important influence on the development of the image of these mountains and their dwellers in such works anticipating the Romantic fascination with the Alps as Jean Jacques Rousseau’s New Heloise, August von Platten’s Einladung zu einer Schweizerreise (1816) and a poem by Friedrich Schlegel, Weintritt in die deutsche Schweiz. In Poland Haller’s work was unknown because the Polish sentimentalism did not associate its emotions with mountain landscapes. Kazimierz Jaworski’s 1821 translation of Haller’s poem, though pretty and faithful, came too late to have an impact on mountain motifs in Polish literature. However, today it is worth bringing it back from obscurity to present the content of Haller’s work and to illustrate the interest in Switzerland as a land of freedom at the time.
8

Diorama i „Bieszkidzkie Tatry” Juliana Korsaka

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Kolbuszewski J.
Góry, Literatura, Kultura
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2012
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vol. 6
17-28
EN
In Polish literature the interest in the Tatra Mountains began to grow substantially after 1832 and this was when mountain scenery began to appear in stage directions of drama works. The use of the mountains as a backdrop for romantic dramas was considerably influenced by the use of diorama sets. Daguerre set an example here: in 1831 in Paris, he presented a panoramic show entitled Mont Blanc. Mountain scenery found its way from the Parisian stage practices into brief episodes in theatre dramas. The Tatra Mountains appeared in Adam Mickiewicz’s Konfederaci barscy [The Bar Confederates] and Juliusz Słowacki’s Samuel Zborowski, though they had little in common with the real mountains, as they stemmed from the authors’ fantastical ideas. Julian Korsak (1806–1855) did not see a diorama, but he was familiar with similar innovative staging ideas in Warsaw theatres and placed the action of the drama Twardowski czarnoksiężnik [Twardowski the Sorcerer] (1840) in fantastically presented Tatra Mountains. Korsak did not know the Tatras — he found information about this mountain range in Ambroży Grabowski’s Kraków i okolice jego [Kraków and Its Surroundings], introducing fantastical motifs into the drama as well.
9

Kresy. Szkic o dziejach pojęcia

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Kolbuszewski J.
Prace Filologiczne. Literaturoznawstwo
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2008
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vol. 50
|
issue (1)
15-30
EN
The territory of the Eastern Borderlands of the former Republic of Poland, as early as in the second half of the nineteenth century, became an object of strong idealization, rooted in the old Polish “Ukrainian myth” anticipating the borderland mythology and idealizing the heritage of Ukraine as an integral part of Poland. The term “kresy” which refers to some part of the Eastern Borderlands, has a different scope of meaning than the terms that refer to similar areas in other languages. French “confins”, English “borderland”, German “Grenzland”, Latvian “pierobezˇas apgabali” and Slovakian “pohranicˇie” are direct equivalents of the Polish word “pogranicze” and, no doubt, in some context they may be used metaphorically. However, they differ from the term “kresy” lacking some extra mythological and symbolic meaning which makes Kresy an object of mythologization. It was in the poetry of Wincenty Pol that the term “kresy” acquired its metaphorical dimension. In Mohort, his chivalric poem which was written in the years 1840−1852, published in Cracow in 1854, and enthusiastically received afterwards, Pol exploited the existing military and legal term “kresy”, which was at first emotionally neutral, enriching it with a strong emotional status. Pol borrowed this term from his informers who told him the history of both: the authentic and the legendary “last knight of the Polish Republic” − Mohort, who had been killed at a venerable age during the battle with the Russians in 1792. The term “kresy” as referring to the furthest South − the Eastern Borderlands of the Polish Republic was coined as a result of a shift in reference of a term that was military in its origin, and meant − troops defending the border and distributing the mail orders − to include the territory of the entire Ukraine. In this sense, the term “Kresy” became an axiological category. Yet in the nineteenth century, its scope and meaning further expanded to cover those western areas were Polish ownership was threatened (J. Zachariasiewicz, 1860). However, the process of expanding the range of the term’s reference (in spacial terms) did not take place until the beginning of the twentieth century, the time of Polish −Ukrainian military conflicts in particular, when Lviv started to be perceived as the “kresy” fortress. It was also then that Vilnius and the surrounding area began to be perceived as “kresy”. The term “kresy” referring to the eastern territories of independent Poland was significantly extended then. On the other hand, the propagandist attempts to apply this term to western and northern Poland were unsuccessful. After the World War II, at the time of the Polish People’s Republic, the term “Kresy” was utterly eliminated from the public language, the language of politics, literature, journalism, science, art and toto genere culture due to censorship reasons.
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