Search results

1

Reconsidering the role of practice in foreign language teaching and learning

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Pawlak M.

Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics

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2012

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vol. 48

337-354

EN

Although the need for practice in taken for granted by many learners who view it as an integral part of foreign and second language learning, theorists and researchers are sharply divided on this issue. The proponents of the so-called zero grammar option, such as Krashen (1985), believe that language classrooms should replicate as much as possible the conditions of naturalistic discourse and there is hardly any place for practice. The proponents of focus on form, such as Long (1996), do recognize a contribution of pedagogical intervention, but it should be embedded in communicative activities and mainly take the form of corrective feedback, with the effect that the practice of specific language features is limited. Finally, the proponents of skill-learning theory, such as DeKeyser (1998), view practice as crucial since it is indispensable for the conversion of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. Given such conflicting opinions, the aim of the paper is to disambiguate some of the controversies and problems surrounding the place of practice in language learning, describe the forms it can take and single out such arrangements which are the most beneficial in the foreign language classroom with a special view to the language teaching context in Poland.

2

STUDIA FILOLOGICZNE, PRZYGOTOWANIE DO ZAWODU NAUCZYCIELA A WYZWANIA CODZIENNOŚCI

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2015

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issue 44/2

155-169

EN

Becoming a foreign language teacher involves meeting a range of requirements which have mainly been specified in the Decree of the Minister for Science and Higher Education issued on January 17th, 2012, concerning the standards that have to be complied with in teacher education. Education of this kind is still most frequently offered in the course of BA or MA programs in foreign languages, with the crucial caveat that, primarily as a result of decreasing demand for foreign language teachers, this component has been eliminated in many institutions of higher education or students are required to pay for an additional module providing such training. It is assumed that on completion of a BA or MA program as well as obtaining credits for the required courses focusing on pedagogy, a student will have the requisite qualifications to teach a particular foreign language at appropriate educational levels. This implies that, by this time, he or she should have acquired the necessary knowledge, skills and competences, both in the foreign language and in psychological and pedagogical issues, which can ensure effective teaching and learning. The paper aims to subject such assumptions to critical scrutiny, demonstrate that they blatantly fail to take into account the real situation in Polish education, as well as offer some tentative proposals that could enhance the quality of foreign language teacher training in our country.

3

WIELOJĘZYCZNOŚĆ I MIĘDZYKULTUROWOŚĆ W POLSKIM KONTEKŚCIE EDUKACYJNYM – REALISTYCZNE CELE CZY MITY EDUKACYJNE?

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2016

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issue 46/2

153-172

EN

Over the last decade or so, mainly under the influence of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, it has been assumed, often entirely uncritically, that the key goals of foreign language peda-gogy should be the development of multilingualism and multicultural-ism. Although these goals are barely mentioned in the current core cur-riculum and they do not really find a reflection in coursebooks or every-day teaching practice, the pedagogical recommendations stemming from numerous conference presentations, research studies or methodology textbooks for pre-service and in-service teachers indicate that such a sit-uation should be subject to change because it is not sufficiently reflective of the latest theoretical proposals. A question arises, however, to what extent these goals can in fact be accomplished in our educational context in which additional languages are taught and learned as foreign rather than second, and, despite increasing opportunities in this respect, out-of-school contact with such languages is often still very limited. The pa-per aims to address this question, mainly focusing on the difficulties in-volved in fostering multilingualism and multiculturalism, both with re-spect to the relevant regulations concerning language education in Po-land, everyday realities of foreign language teaching and learning, the limitations of teacher training as well as problems involved in conducting empirical studies.

4

Użycie strategii uczenia się gramatyki przez studentów filologii angielskiej

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2011

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issue 37

39-54

EN

Grammar learning strategies can be defined as deliberate actions and thoughts which are employed for learning and gaining greater control over the use of grammar structures (Cohen and Pinilla-Herrera, 2009: 64). This indicates that they are used with the purpose of developing both ex-plicit and implicit second language knowledge. Surprisingly, empirical in-vestigations of such strategic devices are few and far between, with the available studies relying on different classifications and data collection tools, and often producing conflicting results. The present paper contrib-utes to this important line of inquiry by reporting the findings of a re-search project which aimed to explore the use of these strategies by 200 advanced adult learners of English, future teachers of this language en-rolled in a BA program in English philology. The data were collected by means of an instrument designed by the present author (Pawlak, 2009c, 2010, 2011) on the basis of his taxonomy of such strategic devices and, similarly to earlier studies in this area (e.g. Pawlak 2008, 2009a), the analy-sis showed that the choice of grammar learning strategies hinges upon a number of variables and there are differences between the responses to Likert scale items and open-ended questions. The results serve as a basis for tentative suggestions for grammar instruction in modern languages departments and directions for future research.

5

Wprowadzenie. Dyskurs edukacyjny w klasie językowej

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2012

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issue 38/2

137-137

EN

Introducion.

PL

Wprowadzenie. Dyskurs edukacyjny w klasie językowej

6

Negocjowanie form i znaczeń podczas lekcji języka obcego - wyniki badań

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2012

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issue 38/1

77-90

EN

According to numerous theorists and researchers, negotiation of form and meaning plays a crucial role in second and foreign language acquisition, since it enhances the quality of the input to which learners are exposed, it promotes noticing gaps and holes in their target language knowledge, and it provides them with opportunities to modify their incorrect output. Such advantages have been posited, among others, by the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990), the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996) and the Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1995), and they have corroborated by the latest findings of research seeking to determine the value of different focus-on-form options and in particular different ways of providing corrective feedback (Sheen i Ellis, 2011; Pawlak, 2012). It can thus be assumed that teachers should stimulate the use of negotiation, either by reacting in the right way to learners' problematic utterances, planning communicative tasks encouraging its use, or undertaking training in this area. In line with such reasoning, the aim of this paper is to report the results of a study which attempted to determine the incidence of negotiated interaction in pair and group work activities, and to appraise its value for language acquisition.

7

Problemy pomiaru wiedzy językowej

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2010

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issue 35

9-22

PL

A key issue in research projects exploring the effectiveness of foreign language learning and teaching is precise measurement of learners’ knowledge of the targeted structure before and after the pedagogic intervention with an eye to determining the value of specific instructional options. Such measurement, however, poses a considerable challenge because traditional tests focusing on grammar or lexis only provide information about explicit, declarative knowledge, which is conscious and can primarily be applied in situations in which learners have sufficient time to plan their responses. For this reason, it is also necessary to measure implicit, procedural knowledge which is subconscious and automatic, thus enabling successful participation in spontaneous communication where limited attentional resources have to be employed in understanding and conveying messages in real time. The aim of this paper is to characterize the two types of linguistic knowledge, present the tools that can be employed in their measurement, and demonstrate how instruments of this kind can be successfully utilized in empirical investigations aiming to verify the effectiveness of techniques and procedures in teaching grammar.

8

Nauczanie gramatyki języka obcego – kierunki i metody badań

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2009

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issue 32

33-48

EN

Now that the value of grammar instruction has been corroborated in a number of studies, there is a need to determine the ways in which it should most beneficially be conducted. In order to do this, however, it is necessary to undertake empirical investigations which would address such issues as the choice of linguistic features to be taught, the effectiveness of specific techniques and procedures, the timing, duration and intensity of instruction, as well as its place in the overall curriculum. Since such research needs to be context-specific to provide a basis for practicable pedagogic proposals, the present paper outlines the main research directions and discusses key methodological issues in the area of form-focused instruction with a view to encouraging Polish applied linguists to pursue this line of inquiry.

9

Metodologia badań nad strategiami uczenia się

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2009

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issue 32

65-83

EN

The last thirty years have witnessed considerable advances in empirical investigations into language learning strategies, with researchers identifying and classifying strategic devices, providing insights into factors influencing their use, investigating the relationship between the application of strategies and proficiency, and appraising the contributions of strategies- based instruction. Such developments have been accompanied by attempts to refine the existing research tools and design more effective ways of accessing learner’s mental processes. These efforts have not been entirely successful, which is unfortunate since methodological problems limit the validity and reliability of research findings and preclude comparisons between studies, thus stymieing further development of the field. The article evaluates the most frequently used tools and procedures in research on language learning strategies and offers guidelines on how future studies of this kind should most beneficially be conducted.

10

Rozwijanie autonomii ucznia w pracy z uczniem niezwykłym

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Pawlak M.

Neofilolog

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2011

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issue 36

301-318

EN

Fostering learner autonomy is undoubtedly one of the most important goals of foreign language education in Poland, which is evidenced by the fact that it has been included in the current national curriculum, it figures prominently in virtually all available syllabi, and modern coursebooks in-clude numerous elements intended to assist its implementation. It should be made clear, however, that the development of an autonomous approach to language learning is by no means an easy task, the success of which is to a large extent dependent on a particular student. Thus, the aim of the present paper is to demonstrate how autonomy can be effectively pro-moted in the case of exceptional learners, both such who are successful and such for whom learning a foreign language poses a formidable challenge.

11

Another Look at the L2 Motivational Self System of Polish Students Majoring in English: Insights from Interview Data

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Pawlak M.

Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition

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2016

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vol. 2

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issue 2

EN

One of the most recent theoretical developments when it comes to the role of motivation in second language learning is the theory of the L2 motivational self system (e.g., Dörnyei, 2005). It has been proposed in recognition of the fact that learning a foreign language does not only involve acquiring a new communicative code, but also affects the personality of an individual, the difficulties involved in applying Gardner’s (1985) concept of integrativeness to foreign language contexts, as well as the mounting empirical evidence (e.g., Dörnyei & Csizér, 2002), demonstrating that key components of motivation, such as integrativeness, instrumentality, attitudes towards L2 speakers or manifestations of motivated learning behavior are intricately interrelated. As a result, the notion of integrativeness has been reinterpreted as the L2-specific aspect of an individual’s ideal self and the motivational system is believed to comprise the following three dimensions: (a) ideal L2 self, which is related to the abilities and skills that learners envisage themselves possessing, which may trigger a desire to reduce the distance between their actual and ideal selves, (b) ought-to L2 self, which is connected with the attributes that the learners believe are important in the eyes of significant others, and (c) L2 learning experiences, which is a context-related factor reflecting the nature of the immediate learning environment and learning experiences. This framework was applied in a qualitative study, the participants of which were 28 English majors in the last year of a three-year BA program who were interviewed about their motives for learning the target language. The analysis revealed that although motivational influences which have traditionally been regarded as important do play a role, there are a number of factors, such as family influence, instrumentality, knowledge orientation or international posture, that are also of vital importance.

12

Editorial

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2018

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vol. 8

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issue 3

549-551

EN

Following two special issues of the journal, one dedicated to emotions in second language learning and the other to language learning strategies, the present issue of Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching is a regular one, bringing together six empirical studies dealing with different aspects of learning and using second and foreign languages (L2).

13

Review of Research methods for complexity theory in applied linguistics; Authors: Phil Hiver, Ali H. Al-Hoorie; Publisher: Multilingual Matters, 2020; ISBN: 978-1-78892-573-0; Pages: 286

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2020

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vol. 10

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issue 2

391-395

EN

When I found out about the upcoming publication of a book devoted in its entirety to research methods that can be used to investigate issues in applied linguistics (AL) within the framework of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST), I immediately decided to include it in my reading list and, time permitting, review it for SSLLT. On the one hand, research into learning and teaching second and foreign languages is one of the most vibrant lines of inquiry in AL and therefore it is only fitting that the appearance of such a ground-breaking volume should be recognized by the journal. After all, it is an indisputable fact that CDST has made major inroads into the domain of second language acquisition (SLA) and it is beginning to change or, should I say, revolutionize the ways in which different aspects of SLA are examined. This is perhaps most evident in the case of studies of individual difference (ID) factors (e.g., Dörnyei, MacIntyre, & Henry, 2014; Hiver, 2017; Oxford, 2017) and has also found its reflection in the special issue of SSLLT (1/2020), titled Investigating the Dynamic Nature of Individual Differences in L2 Learning, guest-edited by Laura Gurzynski-Weiss. In addition, one cannot help but notice that this theoretical stance has started to be seen as a new creed for many specialists, to the point that there is perhaps a danger of its being perceived as the only “correct” approach to shedding light on various facets of SLA. As Diane Larsen-Freeman writes in her excellent foreword to the book, “this new way of thinking has called into question the conventional ideas about language and its learning/development” (p. vii). On the other hand, I cannot call myself an ardent enthusiast of CDST, not because I cannot see its many merits or do not acknowledge its enormous potential for expanding our understanding of how languages are learnt or taught, but because I believe that only a diversity of approaches can help us better grasp the intricacies of these processes. Still, I was certainly thrilled to finally see a publication that, instead of merely trying to convince us that SLA research should be grounded in CDST, in fact makes an earnest attempt to illustrate how this can be done in practice.

14

Editorial

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2020

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vol. 10

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issue 2

235-237

EN

It is with great pleasure that I am sharing with you this new issue of Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. Since the first issue in 2020 was a special issue guest-edited by Laura Gurzynski-Weiss, I did not have the chance to emphasize the fact that the journal has entered its tenth year of existence. These ten years have passed very quickly and the journey we have travelled is truly exceptional. When we were putting together the first issues, it was so hard to find good papers and we had to continually struggle trying to convince our colleagues that SSLLT had much potential and was the right choice for publishing their work. At present, we are receiving several hundred submissions per year and the rejection rate by far exceeds 80%. At the same time, an increasing number of submissions represent outstanding scholarship, with the effect that the papers that ultimately get accepted and published are also getting better and better. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all those who have supported SSLLT from the get-go – the co-editors, the members of the Editorial Board, the reviewers, the guest-editors of special issues and all the contributors. I will have much more to say about this special anniversary in the December edition where I will also be announcing the way in which we are planning to celebrate it.

15

Editorial

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2018

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vol. 8

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issue 4

719-720

EN

The publication of the last 2018 issue of Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching marks the end of the eighth year of existence of the journal. It has been a successful year for a number of reasons. First, we have concluded the transition to our electronic platform, which has made the processing of submissions much more manageable. Second, we have published two state-of-the-art special issues, one dedicated to emotions in language learning and the other to language learning strategies. Both of them carry papers by leading scholars in the two respective domains and I am positive that they will contribute to further improvement of the standing of the journal in the field. Third, we have commissioned special issues guest-edited by well-known scholars for several years to come. Fourth, we have seen a major rise in the number of submissions, and, even more importantly, an overall increase in the quality of the manuscripts. Fifth, as can be seen from the indices included in Scopus, the journal continues to have a considerable impact on the field and this impact is very likely to grow in the future. At the same time, there are many problems that we have to face, such as the delays in handling papers caused by the spike in submissions, the need to strike a balance between special issues and regular issues, or the major difficulty in finding suitable reviewers. We are sure, however, that these difficulties are simply challenges that need to be overcome and we are committed to making the journal grow and become even more influential in the field.

16

Editorial

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2011

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vol. 1

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issue 1

9-11

EN

Starting a new journal is never easy and this also holds true for Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching. The first question that should be posed when the idea is conceived is whether there is demand for such a journal in the community and the distinctive features that will make it distinguishable from or perhaps even superior to other publications already in existence. The second challenge is convincing eminent scholars to agree to become part of the project, which is a fundamental issue for any journal which aspires to achieve some degree of prominence. Yet another problem is finding authors that will be willing to submit their work to the journal, thus ensuring that there is no risk that sooner or later it may run out of papers to publish. These should be not only big names who have already established themselves in the field and whose contributions will induce others to write for the journal, but also less known scholars both from Poland and across the world, as in the end it is the latter who will be the main contributors to the journal. There is also the question of quality, which involves careful screening and selection of papers, which may not be easy when the number of submissions is not high. It is also related to finding reviewers who are recognized experts in particular areas, a task that is becoming more and more difficult in the light of the fact that such scientific enterprises have been mushrooming in recent years. Moreover, it is necessary to satisfy the requirements of the national authorities charged with the responsibility of ensuring high quality of academic research, which is in itself a major challenge because these requirements are in a constant state of flux. There are also all the doubts and uncertainties concerning the layout, the style sheet and also the cover, technicalities it might seem, but in reality things that might to some extent affect the reception of the publication. Last but not least, there is a need for sufficient funding and cutting through all the red tape before the journal can finally go into print.

17

Editorial

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2020

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vol. 10

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issue 4

669-672

EN

I have to honestly admit that writing this editorial feels very different from writing the one for the December of 2011 when Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching had just completed its first year of existence. At that time, I was feeling a lot of uncertainty and trepidation about the future of the journal, wondering whether it would survive beyond the first year or two as well as whether it would stand a chance of becoming internationally recognizable. Today the situation is very different. Even though this has been an unprecedented year because of the COVID pandemic with all the havoc it has been wreaking all over the world, 2020 has proved to be exceptionally gracious to SSLLT. For one thing, not only has the journal survived and it is now turning 10 years of age, but it has also managed to secure its place among the most influential journals in the field, as can be seen, for example, from its ever-increasing indices in Scopus. Even more importantly, SSLLT has at last been included in some of the databases in Web of Science, most notably Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) and Journal Citation Reports Social Sciences (JCRSS). Needless to say, we have been waiting for this momentous turn of events for quite a few years and now we cannot wait again to find out the impact factor for the journal, which should be announced some time in 2021. Once again, I cannot stress enough that the huge success of the journal is the outcome of the contribution of numerous individuals, in particular the consecutive associate editors, authors, reviewers, as well as editors of special issues. All of this certainly calls for a celebration and it is our intention to do so by organizing a conference that would bring together all those who have been involved in SSLLT and supported it from its inception, in whatever capacity this might have happened. We are sincerely hoping to be able to hold this event in October 2021 and will be sending out a call for papers some time in December. We do realize that the pandemic can foil any plan now, but we are determined to celebrate the success of the journal. Should autumn 2021 turn out to be unfeasible, we will be aiming for spring 2022 and we are very confident that sooner rather than later we will be able to finally meet face-to-face to discuss key issues involved in the process of second language learning and teaching. While there is surely nothing wrong with online conferences, I am convinced that we would all rather have a chance to talk in person at along last and we will do our best to make this happen. One thing is for sure, whatever the timing, the Faculty of Pedagogy and Fine Arts in Kalisz, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poland, will be the venue for this event. After all, this is where the idea for SSLLT was conceived well over 10 years ago and where the journal has been published from the get-go.

18

Review of Directed motivational currents and language education: Exploring implications for pedagogy; Author: Christine Muir; Publisher: Multilingual Matters, 2020; ISBN: 978-1-78892-884-7; Pages: 252

100%

Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2020

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vol. 10

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issue 4

807-811

EN

The construct of a directed motivational current (DMC), or “. . . a surge of motivational energy that seemingly picks an individual up and carries them sometimes unimaginable distances” (p. xvi) was introduced into research on motivation in second and foreign language (L2) learning less than a decade ago (e.g., Dörnyei, Ibrahim, & Muir, 2015; Muir & Dörnyei, 2013). Despite being a relative newcomer to the field, the concept has provided an impulse for empirical investigations which have primarily focused on validating its core assumptions and proposed dimensions using largely qualitative methodology (e.g., Safdari & Maftoon, 2007; Zarrinabadi & Tavakoli, 2017). The book Directed Motivational Currents in Language Education: Implications for Pedagogy by Christine Muir is another valuable addition to this line of inquiry and it can be seen in a way as a follow-up to and extension of the monograph Motivational Currents in Language Learning: Frameworks for Focused Interventions that she co-authored with Zoltán Dörnyei and Alastair Henry in 2016. Since I had the opportunity to write a review of this volume for Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching (Pawlak, 2017), I was all the more curious to see how research on DMCs has progressed and what promise it currently holds for L2 pedagogy. Therefore, the moment the publisher contacted me with the suggestion that SSLLT might be a good venue for a review, I immediately jumped on the offer and simply felt compelled to take on this task myself. I have to say from the get-go that the book has lived up to my expectations and, although I might be somewhat skeptical about some of the implications for classroom practice, I have to admit that Christine Muir’s work represents a so-much-needed step forward in the study of DMCs. This certainly cannot too often be said about all the apparently innovative ideas introduced into the domain of second language acquisition research.

19

Grammar Learning Strategy Inventory (GLSI): Another look

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2018

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vol. 8

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issue 2

351-379

EN

Despite all the progress that has been made in research on language learning strategies since the publication of Rubin’s (1975) seminal paper on good language learners, there are areas that have been neglected by strategy experts. Perhaps the most blatant manifestation of this neglect is the paucity of research into grammar learning strategies (GLS). The main premise of this paper is that for such research to gain momentum, it is to necessary to create valid and reliable data collection instruments that would enable tapping the use of different types of GLS. In line with this reasoning, the article reports a study that aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the Grammar Learning Strategy Inventory (GLSI), a tool constructed by Pawlak (2009b, 2013) on the basis of his classification of strategies for learning grammar in a second or foreign language. Exploratory factor analysis was also employed with the purpose of uncovering the underlying structure of strategic learning of grammar. The analysis provided evidence for largely satisfactory validity and reliability of the GLSI, indicating at the same time there is room for improvement, with concrete changes being possible after the instrument has been tested with a much larger sample.

20

Investigating the use of speaking strategies in the performance of two communicative tasks: The importance of communicative goal

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Pawlak M.

Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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2018

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vol. 8

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issue 2

269-291

EN

Although the ability to speak is usually seen as a key manifestation of learners’ ability in the target language they are attempting to master, research has not given ample attention to strategies that can be employed to enhance this skill. In fact, the bulk of such empirical investigations has mainly focused on communication strategies that are reactive devices, predominantly used to overcome difficulties in successful conveyance of meanings and messages, and even this line of inquiry has been neglected in recent years. The study reported in this paper aims to partially bridge this gap by examining the speaking strategies that advanced learners of English used in the performance of two communicative tasks, differing in the extent to which the participants were required to make a contribution to their successful completion. The data collected by means of open-ended questionnaires that were administered immediately after the completion of the two tasks yielded crucial insights into the nature of the speaking strategies and the ways in which the communicative goals inherent in task type influenced the choice of speaking strategies.

Refine search results

Reconsidering the role of practice in foreign language teaching and learning

STUDIA FILOLOGICZNE, PRZYGOTOWANIE DO ZAWODU NAUCZYCIELA A WYZWANIA CODZIENNOŚCI

WIELOJĘZYCZNOŚĆ I MIĘDZYKULTUROWOŚĆ W POLSKIM KONTEKŚCIE EDUKACYJNYM – REALISTYCZNE CELE CZY MITY EDUKACYJNE?

Użycie strategii uczenia się gramatyki przez studentów filologii angielskiej

Wprowadzenie. Dyskurs edukacyjny w klasie językowej

Negocjowanie form i znaczeń podczas lekcji języka obcego - wyniki badań

Problemy pomiaru wiedzy językowej

Nauczanie gramatyki języka obcego – kierunki i metody badań

Metodologia badań nad strategiami uczenia się

Rozwijanie autonomii ucznia w pracy z uczniem niezwykłym

Another Look at the L2 Motivational Self System of Polish Students Majoring in English: Insights from Interview Data

Editorial

Review of Research methods for complexity theory in applied linguistics; Authors: Phil Hiver, Ali H. Al-Hoorie; Publisher: Multilingual Matters, 2020; ISBN: 978-1-78892-573-0; Pages: 286

Editorial

Editorial

Editorial

Editorial

Review of Directed motivational currents and language education: Exploring implications for pedagogy; Author: Christine Muir; Publisher: Multilingual Matters, 2020; ISBN: 978-1-78892-884-7; Pages: 252

Grammar Learning Strategy Inventory (GLSI): Another look

Investigating the use of speaking strategies in the performance of two communicative tasks: The importance of communicative goal