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PL
Problematyka obrony terytorialnej (OT) należała do priorytetowych zadań polityki bezpieczeństwa narodowego Polski w czasie poprzedzającym wejście do struktur Organizacji Traktatu Północnoatlantyckiego, czyli do 1999 roku, ale też w okresie umacniania obronności państwa w XXI wieku. Znalazła odzwierciedlenie w myśli politycznej i jej poszczególnych nurtach ideowych. Umowne pojmowanie tytułowej „współczesności” ukonkretniły cezury czasowe przyjęte w treści artykułu. Początek dał rok 1989, a więc rozpoczęcie procesu przemian ustrojowych w Polsce, końcową datą był rok 2015, gdy wraz z powstaniem rządu koalicyjnego na czele z partią Prawo i Sprawiedliwość ukształtowała się nowa jakość polityczna. Pod względem podmiotowym wyróżnić można było myśl polityczną wytwarzaną przez ugrupowania (podmiotowość strukturalna) oraz przez ideologów (podmiotowość personalna) z uwzględnieniem kanałów jej transmisji (media ogólnoinformacyjne, publicyści polityczni). Natomiast pod względem ideowym ujawniała się gotowość do tworzenia wizji OT w środowiskach konserwatywnych, liberalnych, ludowych, nacjonalistycznych, narodowo-katolickich, socjaldemokratycznych, socjalistycznych. W artykule zmierzano do udzielenia odpowiedzi na trzy pytania badawcze. Po pierwsze, zwrócono uwagę na sposoby umotywowania idei obrony terytorialnej w myśli politycznej. Po drugie, w sferze zainteresowań znalazły się kwestie istnienia historycznych wzorców OT i ich implikacji w czasach współczesnych. Po trzecie, podjęta została sprawa trybu artykulacji OT w następstwie wdrożenia odpowiedniej procedury definicyjnej. Odpowiedzi na dwa pierwsze pytania pozwoliły na wskazanie wspólnoty poglądów różnych podmiotów myśli politycznej. Uzasadnienia dla OT miały generalny charakter ze względu na sytuację obronną Polski zdeterminowaną przez geopolitykę. Ogół podmiotów myśli politycznej wykazywał świadomość zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa narodu i państwa. Trauma przeżyć powstańczych, wojennych, okupacyjnych w XX wieku skłaniała do gruntowania form samoobrony. Natomiast kwestie definicyjne wywoływały rozbieżności w odniesieniu do nazewnictwa, ideałów i wartości, symboli i rytuałów politycznych oraz zadań przynależnych OT. Na poziomie abstrakcji występowały uniwersalne refleksje patriotyczne, humanitarne, ogólnoludzkie, dopełniane przez myśl prawicową o odniesienia do narodu, rodziny, wierzenia religijnego. Na poziomie praktyki autorzy myśli politycznej wypowiadali się w sprawie konkretnych kwestii strategiczno-operacyjnych, taktycznych, organizacyjnych. Niezależnie od podziałów ideowych zwracano uwagę na znaczenie OT przy ochronie ludzi i ich dobytku materialnego w warunkach skrajnych (klęska żywiołowa, katastrofa techniczna, wojna).
EN
The thematic area of territorial defence (TD) was one of the priorities lying at the centre of the national defence of Poland, not only before the 1999 accession to NATO, but also in the 21st Century, when Poland continued to strengthen its defensive potential. This subject matter became reflected in political thought and its various ideological trends. While used metaphorically in the title, the notion of “contemporaneity” acquires a more specific form when built around the time periods discussed in the article. The starting point is 1989, the kick-off year for changes in the political system of Poland, and ending in 2015, when, along with the formation of a coalition cabinet led by the Law and Justice Party, a new political quality came into being. In objective terms, one can differentiate between political thought originating in factions (structural objectivity) and that developed by ideologues (personal objectivity), with consideration given to its transmission channels (the media providing general information, political columnists, etc.). As regards the ideological aspect, the willingness to develop TD-related visions emerged in conservative, liberal, peasant, nationalist, Catholic-nationalist, socio-democratic, and socialist circles. This article aims to provide answers to three research questions. First, focus is made on the ways in which political thought has been used to account for the concept of territorial defence. Second, the article brings forward issues centred around the existence of historical patterns of TD and their implications on the present times. Third, the article addresses the mode of the articulation of TD following the implementation of an appropriate definition procedure. Answering the first two questions made it possible to identify the common ground for views expressed by the various subjects of political thought. The arguments in favour of TD were of a general nature, due to the defensive status quo of Poland, largely determined by geopolitical considerations. The subjects of political thought in their generality were aware of the threats to the security of the nation and the State. The dramatic experiences suffered in the 20th Century from uprisings, wars and occupations encouraged the consolidation of some forms of self-defence. As far as definition issues are considered, these caused discrepancies in nomenclature, ideals and values, symbols and political rituals, and, finally, tasks attributable to TD. The abstraction level exhibited general reflections of a patriotic, humanitarian, and universal nature, which were further complemented by right-wing thought with references to such notions as nation, family and religious beliefs. At the practical level, the originators of political thought commented on specific strategic and operational, tactical, and organisational issues. Irrespective of ideological affiliations, stress was invariably placed on the importance of TD when it came to protecting citizens and their property in extreme conditions (natural disaster, massive technical failure, war, etc.).
EN
Iran in 1979 was one of Poland’s most important business partners in the Middle East. After the Iranian Revolution the situation changed dramatically. The available documents allow previously unaudited Polish–Iranian relations to be researched and reveal attempts at the closing of both countries in the 1980s. The climax of these attempts was a visit by the Minister of Foreign Affairs Marian Orzechowski to Tehran in 1987. Showing a complete picture of these contacts required research of documents from the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Newsreel, and the Institute of National Remembrance in Warsaw. Results of the research were compared with information in the Polish press and the interview with Professor Orzechowski as well as with his written memoires. Orzechowski’s visit to Iran was an actual resumption of Polish–Iranian relations, which had ceased as a result of the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
EN
The revolution in Iran began under anti – imperialist and national slogans against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi single rules, and ended with the advent of the new dictatorship of religious circles. The United States and Western Europe approved the change of power in Iran, fearing of the Communist influence. What is more, PRL newspapers put a sign of equality between the U.S. policy in Iran and the rule of the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, stressing that the U.S. will accept each and every amendment on the Iranian political scene in order to safeguard the interests in the Middle East. Iranian-American relations in the Polish press were characterized by complexity and uncertainty resulting from the presenting the United States as a declining leader of the ailing world in the 80s.
EN
The women’s right to vote was recognised by the Second Polish Republic in 1918. That led to certain changes in the politics of the country. The Catholic women’s press played a major role in examining what was influencing female voters. There were two points of interest for political journalism: 1) the justification of women’s right to political equality by showing Polish women as heroines throughout the Polish history; 2) popularisation of women’s right to vote. Readers were encouraged to learn how Polish women gained voting experience. The press was particularly interested in Catholic female Members of the Polish Parliament and deputies for the Silesian Sejm. The debate itself was repeating the patterns of the patriarchal system and the archetype of the Polish Mother and the Polish-Catholic woman. Thus, they were shown as defenders of the traditional way of doing politics, assuring that after gaining the suffrage the Polish women would vote for the Catholic National political parties.
EN
Narodowa Demokracja proclaimed its programme to resign from violence as a military activity and manifested its reluctance to insurrectionary techniques of political fighting. It postponed the decision to begin a national uprising, which was supported by a number of factors. Narodowa Demokracja were willing to benefit from the impact made by social authority figures like the Church, the school, and the press. The rules they set out condemned any political loyalty to the occupants. They encouraged passive resistance against Russification or Germanisation and engagement in legal political activities. Narodowa Demokracja focused on how to organise effectively education and upbringing with the use of available means to educate the Polish nation. The experience of the partitions was disregarded when Sanacja, a Polish coalition political movement, was in power. As a result, a wide range of nonviolent resistance methods was adopted, including political and economic boycott.
EN
The leadership of National Democrats (ND) appreciated the significance of political press publications, creating many party press organs. The leaders of ND headed by Roman Dmowski, Zygmunt Balicki and Jan Ludwik Popławski were themselves experienced editors and publishers of nation-wide and local periodicals. They raised a number of younger political journalists who expanded the press system of ND in the independent Poland. Those journalists proved skilfull in (1) coding and decoding of communiques, (2) using imaginative forms of thinking, (3) quick interpretation of political phenomena and instantenous reacting to them, (4) carrying out languistic negotiations. In the political propaganda battles, ND was capable of employing slogans, using shortcuts and simplifications. The party proved that it was able to use the political language to manipulate social moods and attitudes. The language of political defavourisation in the ND publications was a language of political exclusion. It exclued from the national life members of political groupings which competed with ND (in particular the members of the political group of „Sanacja”), national minorities (mainly Jews and Germans), as well as members of secret associations (masonry) and illegal political parties such as communists. This language built up rigorous conditions and procedures in the conceptions of Polishness, the Nation, national interest, national identity etc. It was to protect the nationalist system of values against enemies: political, ideological, religious, cultural. It reflected the spirit of the historical era with its characteristic socio-cultural, political and economic transformations.
EN
Feature film is an important historical source on condition that (1) its social, political, and cultural context is interpreted, (2) features of the epoch are recognized, (3) the dominant artistic styles are known, and (4) the intentions of the addresser and the level of perception of the addressee are understood. When classifying a film as a source, the fundamental elements of research regime should be fulfilled which means that a film can be considered a standard source with its typical advantages and disadvantages. Feature film fulfilled the requirements of recording the events, people and places that created the history of the People’s Poland, taking into account its ideological beginnings. One can even claim the appearance of cognitive optimism on the assumption that the film became a source that is not only conclusive (after using proper procedures of formal and educational criticism) but is also effective as a transmitter of historic content. Its existence inclined to the reflexion on the methodology of research, encouraged to extending the limits of sources of discovering the historic processes, strengthened the readiness to nurturing the habit of controlling what is or can be a historical source.
PL
Celem artykułu było ukazanie wzorca osobowego kobiety w Polsce międzywojennej na przykładzie czasopisma „Kuźniczanka”, katolickiego organu prasowego Szkoły Domowej Pracy Kobiet w Zakopanem. Przedstawiono w nim historię edukacyjnej placówki założonej pod koniec XIX w. przez Jadwigę z Działyńskich Zamoyską, wybitną działaczkę społeczną, patriotkę, propagatorkę idei żeńskiego szkolnictwa gospodarczego. Zamoyska dokonała recepcji idei „szkół życia chrześcijańskiego” według metody zakonu oratorian. Swoim postępowaniem dała świadectwo wzorcowego życia kobiety zaangażowanej w pracę na rzecz dobra wspólnego. Analiza zawartości czasopisma „Kuźniczanka” pozwoliła na poznanie sposobów kreowania i upowszechniania ideału kobiety, która w systemie patriarchalnym spełniała rolę społeczną uwarunkowaną płcią, biologią, tradycją, wierzeniem religijnym. We wzorzec wkomponowane były cechy Jadwigi Zamoyskiej łączącej katolicką duchowość z pragmatyzmem organizatorki życia domowego. Dbała o to, by praca pro bono była źródłem radości i szczęścia kobiet, które prowadziły pracę edukacyjną, wychowawczą, charytatywną. Na łamach czasopisma zamieszczano fragmenty jej memuarów, listów i rozmyślań o naukach płynących z Ewangelii. Ponadto redaktorki i publicystki troszczyły się o to, by czytelniczki „Kuźniczanki” otrzymywały wiadomości o europejskich intelektualistach katolickich, o ich najnowszych publikacjach z zakresu teologii, pedagogiki, psychologii. Informacje o uczennicach i absolwentkach Szkoły Domowej Pracy Kobiet zawierały praktyczne wskazówki dotyczące wzorca Polki, katoliczki, obrończyni wiary religijnej i promotorki patriotyzmu.
EN
The purpose of the article was to show the image of the woman in the interwar Poland, based on “Kuźniczanka” (1931–1936), a Catholic magazine. The article presents the history of Szkoła Domowej Pracy Kobiet (School of House Work for Women), founded at the end of the 19th century by Jadwiga Zamoyska (née Działyńska) – an eminent social activist, a patriot and a Catholic. Her life was an example of an ideal life of a woman dedicated to work for the common good. The analysis of “Kuźniczanka” let us find out how the image of the ideal woman was created. Especially when remembering that the interwar period society was patriarchal. The model woman’s traits were based on Jadwiga Zamoyska’s – a Catholic and a home life organizer. She was doing everything to assure that the free job of teaching, bringing up and charity was a source of joy for women. The magazine was publishing pieces of her journals, letters and thoughts on Gospel as a source of knowledge. Furthermore, the authors were assuring that the readers were receiving news about the European Catholic intellectuals – especially their articles about theology, pedagogy and psychology. There were also texts about pupils and graduates of Szkoła Domowej Pracy Kobiet – who were shown as examples of Polish women, Catholics, defenders of the faith and patriots.
PL
Celem artykułu jest rekonstrukcja strategii komunikacyjnej przygotowanej dla czasopiśmiennictwa światopoglądowego adresowanego do kobiet w Polsce międzywojennej. Powstanie i rozwój tego typu prasy były zdeterminowane przez decyzje podejmowane przez Kościół katolicki, który zmierzał do pogłębienia wpływu na środowiska kobiece. Pod pojęciem prasy katolickiej, katolicko-narodowej i narodowej znalazły się periodyki, w których deklarowano więź z katolicyzmem, przetwarzano informacje o sytuacji Kościoła katolickiego, prezentowano wiedzę o doktrynie religijnej, a także pogłębiano tożsamość i jedność narodową. Prasotwórczą funkcję pełniły społeczne zrzeszenia katoliczek, w tym stowarzyszenia mające aspiracje polityczne. Głosiły idee komplementarnego ujmowania spraw konfesyjnych i etnicznych. Korzystały z archetypu kobiecości wkomponowanego w wizję Polki katoliczki i Matki-Polki.
EN
The aim of the article was to reconstruct the means of communication in Interwar Poland’s worldview press for women. The origins and development of such periodicals was determined by the decisions made by the Catholic Church, which wanted to gain more influence on Polish women. Catholic, National Catholic and National press declared their affiliation with the Catholic faith, informed about the state of the Church, presented the doctrine and deepen the National identity and unity. These periodicals were created by the Catholic women’s associations, including those with political aspirations. To achieve their goals, they were using archetypes of Polish Mother and Polish women as Catholics.
PL
Celem artykułu było ukazanie wybranych składników kultury organizacyjnej społecznych ruchów kobiet i ich odzwierciedlenia w prasie dla katoliczek w Polsce w latach 1918–1939. Prasa wyznaniowa stanowiła istotny segment produkcji wydawniczej, w której uwzględniono periodyki adresowane do kobiet. Prezentowała wartości narodowe i religijne, propagowała postawy czynnej obrony polskości i katolicyzmu przeciw zagrożeniu immoralizmem i kosmopolityzmem. W przekazie prasowym społeczne ruchy katoliczek były prężne, zintegrowane, silnie oddziałujące na członkinie. Na ich całościowy obraz składały się dwa obrazy cząstkowe: instytucjonalne i personalne. Z nich wynikało wyobrażenie Polki katoliczki i Matki-Polki, realizującej zadania apostolstwa świeckiego.
EN
The purpose of the article was to show some aspects of women’s social movements and related press for Catholic women in the interwar Poland. Back then the religious press was an important part of publishing. Some of the papers were published directly for women. These periodicals were supporting national and religious values, were propagating the need to defend Poland and the Catholic faith against the immorality and cosmopolitism. The social movements of Polish Catholic women were strong, integrated and influenced among their members. They were showing the ideal of women in the country – both Polish-Catholic and the “Polish-Mother” – who is considered a secular apostole.
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