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Przyczyny sporów w handlu zagranicznym

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Grochocińska M., Uniwersytet Łódzki Z. F. M. i. H. Z.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

1993

vol. 133

When proceeding to conclude a contract trading partners usually hope that their Joint agreement will be executed without any major disturbances and both sides will be - fully satisfied. In practice, however, disputes between the sides to a contract often arise. It is only a relatively small group of causes that contains an elenent of forco majeure in it, that is to say their occurrence does not depend on man's will to any extent whatsoever, while all the others result generally from negligence, recklessness, or human fallibility. This group of causes was submitted to a more detailed analysis. Thus, for example, at the stage of preparing and negotiating a contract it may happen that an incomplete offer has been submitted, the quality of goods has not been negotiated precisely, or an error has been made in the content of a contract or in the form of an arbitration clause contained in it. More various errors could be distinguished at the stage of a direct execution of a trade agreement, e.g. a failure to send a shipping Instruction on time, typing errors, unpunctual payments, wrong packaging of goods and others. This article does not list, of course, all causes of disputes in foreign trade, still it is based on an analysis of a number of controversial situations, which made their way to the Board of Arbitrators attached to the Polish Chamber of Foreign Trade in the 70 s and the 80 s.

Europejski System Walutowy - struktura i mechanizm jego działania

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Włodarczyk-Guzek W., Uniwersytet Łódzki Z. F. M. i. H. Z.

Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

1993

vol. 133

The article is an attempt to evaluate the European Monetary System after twelve years of its operation. The starting point for the analysis is the genesis of the system. Next, there are discussed goals and principles on which its operation is based. This is followed by the presentation of its elements such as ECU - a common monetary unit which is Its axis, the currency exchange-intervention mechanism, the indicator of divergence, and the credit mechanism. The next part pf the article deals with the past operation of the European Monetary System. This part of the analysis allowed to show some shortcomings of the system and emphasis its main achievements. It is stressed that changes In currency exchange rates within the framework of the European Monetary System were not too frequent and in this respect the goal of the system was fully achieved. On the other hand, the European Monetary System failed to create mechanism cushioning internal disturbances resulting from fluctuations in the dollar exchange rate. Similarly to the currency exchange-intervention mechanism the common monetary unit-ECU proved also to be a great success. Other positive elements of the system Include the adoption of economic policies pursued by particular countries belonging to the system. On the other hand, the credit mechanism constituting one of the main elements of the system has not been fully realised. Despite many positive elements in the operation of the European Monetary Fund their existence In the present form may be questionable once the European Community is transformed into a monetary union.

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2 Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica

2 Uniwersytet Łódzki Z. F. M. i. H. Z.

1 Grochocińska M.

1 Włodarczyk-Guzek W.

2 1993

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Przyczyny sporów w handlu zagranicznym

Europejski System Walutowy - struktura i mechanizm jego działania