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1

Consonant Alliteration in Ovid’s "Metamorphoses", Books IX–XV

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2017
|
issue 20
165-189
EN
In Book IX T, D alliteration amounts to 21,8%, M, N – 16,8%, in Book X the most frequent alliteration is T, D – 21,2%, then M, N – 12,9%. In Book XI the first place belongs to alliteration T, D – 14,08%, M, N – 13,7%. In Book XII it is M, N alliteration that prevails – 16,4%, next we have T, D – 12,7%. In Book XIII the first place goes back to T, D alliteration – 17,8%, then we have M, N – 14,8%. In Book XIV, the same as in Book XII, the predominant alliteration is M, N – 22,2%, followed by T, D – 19,5%. The same tendency is also apparent in Book XV, with the most numerous alliteration being M, N – 22,5%, followed by T, D – 22,4%. The most important alliterations play a variety of roles in Books IX–XV. They describe the metamorphoses, e. g. Iphis changing into a man, Hip­pomenes and Atalanta into a lion, Acmon into a bird etc. They express great pas­sions and the death of the protagonists. The alliteration clusters are found in the apotheosis of Romulus and Augustus, as well as the immortality of Heracles. Ovid uses them to describe the elements, such as the flood or sea storm, and powerful animals.
2

Rhetorical theory in the third book of Quintilian’s

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2013
|
issue 16
113-135
EN
Quintilian focuses on presenting the beginnings of rhetorical art, its components, how it is expressed and formed. Rhetoric is an art, though it serves a practical, useful function. Nature gave birth to speech, while observation created the art of speech. Every speech is built out of that which is signified (quae significantur) and that which signifies (quae significant), that is, out of res and verba. The ability to speak is perfected by nature, art and practice, though some authors add imitation as well, whereas Quintilian believes imitation to be a part of ars. The most important question discussed by Quintilian is status, i.e. the basis or foundation, the point of contention in a judiciary dispute. Some call it constitutio, others quaestio, still others quod ex quaestione appareat, while Theodorus of Gadara names it caput, that is kef£laion genikw;taton. The Greeks use the term sta;sivj and claim this name was not invented by Hermagoras, but by Naucrates, student of Isocrates, or by Zopyros of Clazomenae. This is the moment when the first clash between the two parties takes place or because it forms the basis of the whole case. However, there does not exist any agreement between the authors on the number and definitions of the term status, nor on the difference between status generales and speciales. In every kind of case there is a cause (causa), the crux of the matter (iudicatio) and the main argument (continens). Insistent begging (rogare), foretelling (iudicare), argumentation (rationem reddere) exist in judiciary, advisory and epideictic speeches. Hermagoras`s opinion that we should consider the subject of the case (quaestio), line of defense (ratio), crux of the matter (iudicatio), the main argument (continens) or, as others call it, the main point of their accusation or defense (firmamentum). There exists a common consensus that quaestio originates from another quaestio and that species can be divided into other species. Quaestio principalis (fundamental) is called zh;thma. Ratio is a method of defense in a situation when the deed was committed. Quintilian uses a widely known example provided by his predecessors; Orestes killed his mother, he admits it and claims that what he did was right. What counts the most is the authority of the speaker. The orator should possess knowledge and extraordinary virtues of character.
3

Elocutio in Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria, Book VIII

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2014
|
issue 17
203-230
EN
The rhetorical art is the skill of speaking well, it is useful, it is an art, and it has virtus. The Greek concept of fra;sivj is rendered by Roman authors as elocutio, i.e. style. Quintilian believes clarity of speech is the basic element of good style. Words should be apt, order – direct, conclusion – not too distant, and everything should have adequate proportions. Words should be selected depending on the context. The words used in a metaphorical sense gain appreciation only in a specific context. Ability to present facts clearly and vividly is a great asset. Even the natural and unsophisticated simplicity, which the Greeks call a]fe;leia, contains some decorativeness, while punctilious scrupulosity in adhering to grammatical correctness gives the impression of sophistication and subtlety. The real power of the speaker lies in his ability to strengthen or weaken the power of words. The last, sixth chapter of book eight contains Quintilian’s thoughts on the rhetorical tropes. A trope (tro;povj) is an artistic (cum virtute) change of a word or an expression from the original and proper one to another.
4

Civitas secum ipsa discors (II 23, 1) Political Rhetoric in Livy’s First Pentad

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2016
|
issue 19
221-244
EN
Livy tries to judge virtutes and vitia of both patricians and plebeians impartially. Naturally, Livy’s vision of the early republic presented in the first pentad is anachronic and discordant in reference to historical truth. In my opinion he supports an aristocratic republic and Augustus’s principate, but often criticizes patricians and highly estimates valours of the plebs. His observations on regnum, libertas, moderatio, discordia are noteworthy and rhetorically embellished. The language of political rhetoric is extended and close to invective. The struggle between the patricians and the plebeians is a poison (venenum) destroying the city. On the other hand, the best effects are brought out by concordia ordinum (e.g. II 1, 11). As in Vergil’s Aeneid very important are the martial, civil, religious, and familial virtues. The primal role, however, is played by virtus, understood for the most part as military courage (e.g. XXV 14, 1; IX 40, 6; XXIV 38, 2).
5

Consonant Alliteration in Lucan's "Pharsalia", Books I–V

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2017
|
issue 20
191-212
EN
In book I M, N alliteration amounts to 24,8%; T, D – 16,5%; S – 10,5%, R – 6,7%. In book II the first place belongs to M, N alliteration – 22,8%; then: T, D – 16,1%; S – 11,8%; M, N, T, D – 5,9%. In book III the predominant allitera­tion is M, N – 19,8%; then: T, D – 15,09%; S – 12,5%; M, N, T, D (TH) – 5,6%. Book IV is atypical, as the number of M, N and T, D alliterations is identical, i. e. 19,1%. S constitutes 11,7%, while M, N, T, D – 6,9%. In Book V the most fre­quent alliteration is M, N – 20,0%, next we have T, D – 19,3%; S – 9,2%; M, N, T, D – 8,2%. Alliteration in books I–V of Lucan`s Pharsalia is mainly used to describe the character and actions of Julius Caesar. The narrator insists on his great energy, his ability to cope with critical situations, his extreme luck and Fortune’s favour during the struggle with the elements. Civil war brings about enormous chaos in the universe. The personified Roma is responsible herself for all the ca­lamities that befall her. Yet alliteration is also used to describe more placid scenes, for example the scenery, such as cities (Iolcos, Brundisium) and rivers (Euphra­tes, Tigris). Sometimes alliteration emphasises certain religious elements, e.g. the sacred grove near Massilia. Alliteration is sporadically used in the account of the exploits of Pompey, Cato and Crassus. It plays an important role in the frequent descriptions of the elements that bring disaster on the army, in particular floods and droughts.
6

The criteria of evaluating Cicero in Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2015
|
issue 18
413-436
EN
Quintilian tries to evaluate Cicero on various levels. Examples from the Arpinate’s opera are interspersed almost in the whole textbook of the orator from Calagurris. He highly estimates Cicero’s achievements both in rhetorical practice and theory and appreciates his usage of metaphor, allegory, hyperbole, irony, riddle. The Arpinate is the greatest embodiment of various virtues that are praised in other speakers. As concerns incisum, membrum, circumitus, Quintilian constantly quotes Cicero. The most beautiful kind of speech is the one where analogy, allegory and metaphor are gracefully entwined. Quintilian remains under Cicero’s spell. It is obvious that Quintilian would not have written Institutio oratoria if he did not use the examples contained in Cicero’s works. Poetry raised to its height due to Homer and Vergil, while rhetoric – due to Demosthenes and Cicero.
7

The sense of games and undeserved suffering Some comments on Book V of Vergil's Aeneid

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2012
|
issue 15: Leadership in Antiquity: Langauge - Institutions - Representations
205-221
EN
Many scholars believe that literary and artistic level of Book V of Vergil`s Aeneid is much lower than in the neighbouring books four and six. Nonetheless a detailed analysis of the contents and composition allows, in my opinion, to treat Book V as interesting and valuable. Vergil concentrated primarily on the sense of suffering which often befalls innocent people. The most vivid is the example of Palinurus whose undeserved and sacrificial death permits Aeneas to continue with his mission. The death of Palinurus and Dido is, I think, a symbolic farewell of Aeneas with the Trojan past and the wandering on the sea. The participants in the games are all secondary characters. By introducing them Vergil, I believe, wished to stress the importance of every man of Aeneas` crew in the fulfilling of the task set by destiny. The importance of fatum and fortuna increases exponentially in the instances where human strength and abilities fail.
8

Rhetorice according to the second book of Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria

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Śnieżewski S.
Classica Cracoviensia
|
2015
|
issue 18
437-458
EN
In the second book of Institutio oratoria Quintilian contemplates the definition and nature of rhetoric. The lecture on rhetoric can be divided into three parts: on art (ars), master (artifex), work (opus). The most common definition of rhetoric can be summed up as the power of persuasion (vis persuadendi). Every element of rhetoric changes with the content of the cases, the times, the circumstances, the needs. No law proposals, no resolutions passed by the people constituted the noble rules of rhetoric; they were formed by practice. If utility will advise us to do something different, we should follow such advice and not be constrained by the authority of the former masters. The important virtue (virtus) of the teacher is to take into consideration the different talents of every student and to discover their natural predispositions. In Quintilian’s definition the speaker and his art are not dependent on the effect. Though a speaker aims for victory, then even if he lost the case he still achieved the goal of his art, provided that he spoke honestly.
9

Marek Fabiusz Kwintylian, 'Institutio oratoria', księga XI 1, 1 – XI 3, 29

100%
Śnieżewski S.
Symbolae Philologorum Posnaniensium Graecae et Latinae
|
2012
|
vol. 22
|
issue 1
89-124
EN
Quintilian begins the 11th Book with a remark that the orator’s task is to speak choosing the words carefully (ut dicamus apte). He recalls Cicero believed this to be the fourth characteristic of good style. The most important thing is to know which style is the best to inspire benevolence, to provide insight and evoke emotions in a judge, keeping in mind what results we should expect to gain in various parts of the speech. The whole question of language appropriateness is based not only on the type of style, but also on rhetorical invention. The future orators should be taught that to speak appropriately is to take into account not only what is useful, but also what is proper. It is crucial to learn the character of an orator and the person he defends, as well as the characters of people in front of whom we are to speak. Laudatory speeches which are composed for giving pleasure provide much more refined and magnificent topics than counselling and judiciary speeches which concentrate on action and rivalry. All exaggeration is improper; what is naturally well composed loses its charm if not restricted by some measure. Following these rules is possible due to accurate judgement based on intuition more than imposed strictures. All education is based on memory. The power of memory gives us an abundance of examples, rules, opinions, words and deeds, thus memory is accurately called the treasury of speech. According to Quintilian, the most important feature of memory is practice and diligence. Most important is to rote learn large batches and to think at length day by day. The third part of the 11th Book is filled with deliberations on the subject of pronuntiatio. Quintilian finds the oratory delivery of a speech is often called actio. The first term seems to come from syllabic sound, the second from gesticulation. Even a mediocre speech, as the author of Institutio oratoria claims, will be more moving when succoured by the force of actio than the best speech devoid of it. Demosthenes believes pronuntiatio to be not merely first, but the one and only merit of the oratory art. Cicero also says actio is predominant in oratory art. Yet, as Quintilian avers, there are those who believe that actio devoid of art and caused totally by a natural impulse is more effective and is the only way of delivery behoving an orator. These people are usually the ones who also tend to reject diligence, art, elegance of style and all signs of enthusiasm as artificial and unnatural, or who try to imitate the old authors by choice of words or even primitiveness of style. According to Quintilian, nothing can be perfect if the gifts of nature are not supported by creative zeal.
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