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1
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Europe on the crossroads: Policy of deepening integration on the background of socio-economic context and politics in member states

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Żukrowska K.
Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
|
2018
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issue 523
430-443
EN
EU has presented five scenarios from which only one can be used as a guideline for the future path of European integration. None of the five scenarios has been selected as the one that will be followed in the future since the time they were shown to the public in March 2017. EU documents indicate that preferences are clear and “Europe plans to do more and together with all”. A similar situation is indicated by the context of closer cooperation between NATO and the EU. Nevertheless such a choice does not seem to get the uphold as far as the political situation in most of the EU states shows. The aim of this article is to present the conditions that will be used as a starting point for the formulation of three possible scenarios: most probable, pessimistic and optimistic.
2
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Szansa Polski po kryzysie finansowym 2007/2008+

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Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2013
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issue 4
31-48
EN
The Polish economy has proved that it works better in difficult (read crisis) conditions than the most economies in the region as well as the economies from the group of most developed economically states. Poland in the group of OECD was shown in parallel to Australia and New Zealand, which represent on that lists and rankings relatively better position than Czech Republic or Slovakia. The achieved results are effect of different transformation strategies which were applied in Poland in comparison to remaining economies from the region. This is evidenced by relatively high and still in rise position of Poland in different rankings: growth and job creation, competitiveness, political risk, dynamics of changes, rates of growth, macrostabilization etc. Good economic performance determines the social and political climate of the country, enabling it to continue changes which are required by a catching up economy in global and restructuring world economy. Poland was consequently in her transformation strategy preparing its economy to work in conditions which are characterized by more intensified cooperation than the one of the remaining countries in question. The Polish experience of transformation was conducted in a different way than the strategies of Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. The evident success of the applied strategy in light of a number of states which wait in a subordinated manner to join the main stream economy. In the past IMF, World Bank in their yearbooks published regularly. This experience indicates clearly that Poland is able to prepare the countries of the two European dimension (Eastern and Southern) for training. This can has a specific impact on preparation of such changes with participation of Poland. Poland can use its own experience to build-up the EU’s Transformation Compendium. Poland is also able and willing to support by knowledge, models and expertise processes of systemic changes and after development in states which try to enter the road of changes, growth and catching up.
3
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Transatlantycka liberalizacja handlu i przepływu kapitału

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2014
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issue 2
35-57
EN
The concept of liberalization of economic relations between the EU and US is not new. Never before 2013 negotiations of such an agreement were performed. Until May 2014 five negotiation rounds were conducted. The leading negotiators state that the date of bringing the negotiations to the closing stage, which is the end of current year, can be kept. The TTIP Agreement is supposed to regulate trade liberalization and capital flows between the two markets of the EU and US. The agreement is more focused on elimination of nontariff barriers than custom barriers, which are relatively low already. According to the WTO the customs barriers between the EU and US measured by weighted tariffs are below 3% in their average level. Relatively higher restrictiveness in accessing the market is observed in case of the American market than in the EU one, protection of NTB is estimated at 36–38% respectively. Elimination of barriers in mutual relations will be conducive in increasing competitiveness of produced goods and services manufactured on both markets, it will strengthen technical potentials, improve climate for innovations of both partners. Moreover, TTIP is considered as a solution which will have positive impact on rates of economic growth, GDP, trade and capital transfers. TTIP Agreement is considered as a solution which will be conducive for S&M companies to join the main stream of business on a bigger scale in comparison with the current conditions. Those companies dominate in creation of the GDP as well as employment on both sides of the Pacific. The role of the TTIP is not limited to stimulation of growth or employment on the two markets. As it is also considered that TTIP as an open solution to Access of third states, will have strong impact on Word economy, with special impulses created for those markets which are linked by preferential agreements of access with the EU and US. It is assumed that conclusion of the TTIP agreement will mobilize to return to negotiation table at the suspended Doha Round of the WTO. In sum there believes that the TTIP will have impact on the dynamics of the world economy which slowed down after the crisis of 2008+.
4
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Model bezpieczeństwa międzynarodowego XXI w. Od teorii do praktyki.

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2015
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issue 1
15-37
EN
The article argues that the current security model was shaped in a long period. It is shown that the system was shaped by the solutions applied after the II WW, what embraces global and regional solutions. Until the end of the Cold War the applied solutions were assigned to two opposite Blocs: Western and Eastern. After 1989, which is considered to be the symbolic turning point and end of the Cold War, part of the states from the former Eastern Bloc, after introducing market and democratic reforms have joined NATO and the EU. This also included three states created after the dissolution of the former SU. The article states also that security in Europe is challenged by attempt to reconstruct the area of Russian influence. At the same time it states that this process is not limited to voluntary access of the former republics of SU but also includes annexation of the territories of sovereign Ukraine. The article illustrates that the contemporary security system is characterized by strong asymmetry of applied solutions. NATO applies liberal, cooperative solutions, while Russia uses solutions build upon force and military potential. This asymmetry and moves undertaken by Russia undermine the solutions introduced by international laws. They resulted introduction of sanctions by the US and EU states, what was followed by some political and military steps, labelled as boost NATO military presence in the NATO states bordering with Russia. The article states that in parallel to Hard Power, NATO and the EU should apply also Soft Power. Solutions applied in Russia follow the feeling of majority people in Russia who experience the trauma of former superpower and its fall. The article describes basic conditions of security system with its global and regional solutions, which create its current determinants. This concerns the level of military spending, economic potential, as well as weight of individual states and their groupings in the world scene.
5
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Wojna handlowa USA–ChRL i jej konsekwencje

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2020
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issue 1
63-87
EN
Signals of coming trade war between USA and China could be seen in slogans stated in the presidential campaign in 2017. In 2018 the US administration guided by president Donald Trump moved from slogans to action concerning protection moves in trade policy. Escalation in application of customs tariffs by the USA in imports of goods from China provoked retorsions from side of the Chinese market. Finally USA and China had signed first trade agreement reducing part of the tensions caused by the trade conflict. The trade war and signed agreement play specific role analysed in a wider context of accompanying conditions, which cover slowing down rates of growth in the world economy. US-China trade war cannot be perceived as a bilateral conflict, as it has wider context which is resulting from breaking (disturbing) global value chains (GVC). Conducted in the study analysis shows, that the new agreement signed between US and China is a first and very cautious move towards normalization of mutual relations. It can lead towards some wider agreements concerning mutual trade between the two markets. It is assumed that the current conflict will result in deep changes in production patterns in Asian markets, those highly developed and those developing. The US-China agreement, if it’s conditions are to be fulfilled can have a strong impact on improvement of the current account of the USA. Improvement of the US current account can be achieved in cost of other Chinese trade partners.
PL
Sygnały zapowiadające wojnę handlową między USA a Chińską Republiką Ludową można było dostrzec już w hasłach głoszonych przez Donalda Trumpa, podczas kampanii wyborczej w 2017 r. W 2018 r. administracja USA zaczęła wprowadzać hasła z kampanii do praktyki polityki handlowej. Eskalacja amerykańskich działań wobec ChRL spotkała się z odpowiedziami retorsyjnymi. Ostatecznie USA i ChRL podpisały pierwszą umowę handlową, której celem jest łagodzenie powstałych w ramach konfliktu napięć. Ma to szczególne znaczenie w szerszym kontekście warunków, które decydują o słabnięciu koniunktury gospodarki światowej. Wojna handlowa USA–ChRL to konflikt, który prowadzi do zrywania (zaburzania) globalnych łańcuchów tworzenia wartości dodanej (GVC). Przeprowadzona analiza wskazuje, że nowa umowa zawarta między USA a ChRL jest pierwszym, ostrożnym krokiem w kierunku normalizacji wzajemnych relacji. Może prowadzić do wypracowania szerszych uzgodnień dotyczących relacji handlowych między gospodarkami. Zakłada się głębokie zmiany w strukturze produkcji wysoko rozwiniętych gospodarek azjatyckich i tych, reprezentujących niższy poziom rozwoju. Umowa, jeśli będzie realizowana, może wpłynąć na poprawę rachunku bieżącego bilansu płatniczego USA, co może jednak oznaczać pogorszenie pozycji handlowej innych partnerów ChRL.
6
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China’s One Belt One Road Initiative as a support of EU’s European Neighborhood Policy

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Żukrowska K.
Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
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2017
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issue 486
129-140
EN
The article looks into prospects of closer cooperation between China and the EU in area of the two policies which are launched by the actors in question. Those policies are One Belt One Road (OBOR) and European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). It discusses the two policies and visions which are covered in the two initiatives, what is followed by indicating common elements of the two and differences in interests. The assumption is that the two: China and the EU are engaged in external aid which stimulates growth, nevertheless their initiatives are different and they offer other things to the countries which they concern. Moreover they also can be seen as mutually supplementing each other, rather than competing.
7
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Kryzys finansowy 2007/2008+ i jego skutki dla Unii Europejskiej i strefy euro

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2012
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issue 4
73-88
EN
Article presents methods which were applied in highly developed states in the period of 2007/2008+ crisis in order to stimulate the economic growth. Some similarities and differences in applied methods are being discussed in both cases of repairing the economy as well as in the case of withdrawal from stimulation. The range of different instruments which were applied here as well as differences in methods of stimulation caused variety of different effects in the economies in question. Those differences are also seen in the EU. A number of new solutions were applied here, which were pointed at coordination of undertaken policies, as well as strengthening of their effectiveness. A number of newly tailored instruments or methods are rooted in earlier used methods and instruments, which in the past turned to be effective on limited scale and resulted in the current crisis of the euro zone. It is a difficult task to foresee how effective the new solutions would be in practice when they will be tested in real conditions of the economy. Evaluation of the new methods needs confrontation with practice, what can show how effective are the newly established instruments. Will they need some new tuning, some additional solutions and instruments or they will work designed as they are at this point.
8
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Rozwój Unii Europejskiej do 2020 roku a nowe wyzwania globalizacji i konkurencji międzynarodowej z uwzględnieniem roli, miesca i interesów Polski

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2017
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issue 1
17-33
PL
Unia Europejska jest największym ugrupowaniem integracyjnym w świecie, obejmuje 28 państw, z czego 19 posługuje się wspólną walutą – euro. UE jest ważnym rynkiem i aktorem na scenie międzynarodowej. Wyzwaniem dla ugrupowania jest kilka poważnych problemów, takich jak kryzys UGiW, Brexit, polaryzacja interesów, wybór między poszerzaniem i pogłębianiem. W artykule omawia się możliwe rozwiązania w każdej z wymienionych dziedzin, przedstawiając je w ramach pięciu scenariuszy dla Europy, które zostały zaprezentowane w Rzymie w 60. rocznicę ugrupowania. Scenariusze te przedstawia się na tle wniosków sformułowanych podczas szczytu G-7 w Taorminie dotyczących polityki pomocy, uchodźców z Afryki i konfl iktu syryjskiego. W zakończeniu pojawia się Polska ze swymi interesami w głównych kwestiach dyskutowanych w rozdziale i możliwościami ich realizacji.
EN
The European Union is the biggest integration grouping in the World, which embraces 28 states, 19 of which use common currency – euro. EU is an important market and international actor. The EU is challenged by a number of internal problems, such as crisis of EMU, Brexit, polarization of interests, choices between deepening or widening. The article discusses possible solutions in each area presenting them in the context of 5 scenario for Europe presented in Rome on the 60th anniversary of the grouping. The scenarios are shown on international background with G-7 summit conclusions in Taormina concerning aid policy, refugees from Africa and the Syrian confl ict. Finally it talks also about the Polish place and interests in the main matters, discussed in the article.
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Technologie informacyjno-komunikacyjne (TIK) jako czynnik sprzyjający umiędzynarodowieniu gospodarki światowej i tworzący impulsy rozwojowe

100%
Żukrowska K.
Studia Ekonomiczne
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2018
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vol. 372
161-181
PL
Artykuł omawia rolę TIK w rewolucji 4.0. Sektor tworzy miejsca pracy, wpływa na handel i PNB. Obserwuje się to w gospodarkach o różnym poziomie rozwoju. Proces sprzyja eliminacji barier w handlu. Rozwinięte gospodarki powinny koncentrować się na eliminacji barier pozacelnych (NTB), a wschodzące – barier taryfowych. TIK przyspieszają zmiany strukturalne i stymulują wzrost wydajności, co wymaga odpowiedniego wsparcia. Nie zawsze sektor może sprostać wyzwaniu, jakim bywa zlikwidowanie luki rozwojowej przez napływ kapitału, umiędzynarodowienie gospodarki w ramach globalnych łańcuchów wartości dodanej (GVC). Wsparcie TIK w polityce obejmuje rozwiązania w handlu zagranicznym, edukacji, ewolucję infrastruktury, rozwój. Specyfiką sektora jest to, że w ramach GVC rynki mogą reprezentować różne poziomy rozwoju.
EN
Article shows role of ICT during the revolution 4.0. ICT creates jobs, stimulates trade and GDP. This is observed in markets representing all phases of development what helps to eliminate trade barriers. Developed economies need to concentrate on NTB, while emerging – on tariff barriers. The analysis shows that ICT can accelerate structural changes and dynamics of growth in markets representing different stages of development, but not always this is accompanied by proper climate. The sector can play important role in developed markets helping them to stop the trend of falling productivity and to catch-up, stimulating capital flows internationalization of the economy within GVC’s. Full use of the ICT in the mentioned areas requires specific supportive policies which cover foreign trade, education, infrastructure, development, etc.
10
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Kryzys 2007/2008+ a poszerzenie pojęcia populizmu w ekonomii – hasłowość, instrumentalność, skuteczność

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2011
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issue 4
63-80
11
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Technologies 4.0 and their impact on international trade

100%
Żukrowska K.
Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu
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2019
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issue vol. 63, nr 4
52-66
EN
Revolution 4.0 has a multidimensional impact on international trade, international division of labor, prospects of catching-up and overcoming the development gap in all the groups of countries which lag behind. The role that the resolution in question can play here derives from acceleration and simplification of international communication which is linked with essential fall of international communications costs, as well as increased access to communications technologies. All this is followed by changes in the structure of the world economy and methods of conducting business, as all reflected in changes of foreign trade measured by geographic flows, volumes, structure. Technologies 4.0, mainly, the ICT, lower the costs of foreign exchange and accelerate the procedures, which are applied in case of transborder transfers of foods and services. Structure of the economy, changes in international trade and its geographic flows impose consecutive changes in applied policies (industrial and trade), which are conducted by states. Without their change – access and full application of technologies 4.0 will be limited. Limitations in this specific area will have negative impact on rates of growth, structure changes, innovativeness, productivity, etc. In other words use of full existing potential of the technologies in particular economy will be limited, postponing its development. The revolution is not limited to ICT but it also covers use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in such activities as: production, organization and processing.
PL
Rewolucja 4.0 wpływa wielopłaszczyznowo na wymianę handlową, międzynarodowy podział pracy, możliwości rozwoju i pokonania luki rozwojowej we wszystkich grupach państw, w których to opóźnienie występuje. Jej znaczenie wynika z przyspieszenia i ułatwienia w skali międzynarodowej komunikacji, z czym związany jest zasadniczy spadek kosztów komunikowania, dostępność technologii oraz zmiany zachodzące w strukturze gospodarki i sposobach prowadzenia biznesu. Technologie 4.0, a zwłaszcza ICT, obniżają koszty wymiany handlowej i przyspieszają procedury, które są stosowane w warunkach wymiany handlowej towarów i usług, które przekraczają granice państw. Struktura gospodarki, zmiany w wymianie handlowej i jej strukturze oraz kierunkach narzucają zmiany w polityce gospodarczej (przemysłowej) oraz handlowej państw. Bez ich przestawienia nie będzie można w pełni korzystać z nowych możliwości podniesienia wzrostu gospodarczego, jakie niesie ze sobą rewolucja 4.0, która nie ogranicza się do ICT, ale obejmuje również nowe rozwiązania dotyczące wykorzystania sztucznej inteligencji (SI) w działaniach obejmujących procesy produkcyjne, organizacyjne i przetwórcze.
12
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Brexit – analiza wielopłaszczyznowa możliwych skutków

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2019
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issue 1
11-30
EN
The article argues that consequence of Brexit bring specific costs for both of the partners: EU as well as the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, the procedure of Brexit brings about also some positive aspects. The procedure itself points at the fact how European integration is important for the economy and development of each member state. The procedure helps to restructure the future Multiannual Financial Framework after 2020, it also shows that it is easier to negotiate conditions of trade being represented by the Commission than doing it individually in relations between two states. Separate problem is ascribed to deterrence of applying similar ideas in states, which had followed some of the Brexit visions and mobilized by them politically some of the citizens (Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Germany, Hungary, Italy and Poland). All such conclusions can be drawn while discussing the process, which prolongs and it is impossible to guess how fi nally it will end for the UK as well for the EU as far as their mutual economic relations are concerned. It is still possible to withdraw from the article 50 of the treaty, it is possible to accept the negotiated conditions of the withdrawal treaty or to leave the EU without an agreement. Still all mentioned solutions are possible and can be applied. The choice of one of them is a big unknown. Lack of the Brexit agreement will cause big costs for both of the partners: the EU and the UK.
PL
Artykuł ma na celu dowieść, że skutki brexitu niosą określone koszty zarówno dla UE, jak i Wielkiej Brytanii. Sama procedura brexitu wskazuje znaczenie integracji europejskiej dla rozwoju każdego z państw UE, która wspomaga proces restrukturyzacji przyszłych Wieloletnich Ram Finansowych, wskazuje, że łatwiej jest negocjować warunki handlu, mając za reprezentanta Komisję, niż na zasadzie indywidualnej – państwo z państwem. Osobny problem wiąże się z działaniem na rzecz odstraszania od podobnych koncepcji państw, w których naśladownictwo „brexitu” stało się tematem mobilizującym politycznie (Dania, Finlandia, Francja, Grecja, Niemcy, Polska, Węgry, Włochy). Brexit się przeciąga, jednak trudno przewidzieć, jak się zakończy dla UE i Wielkiej Brytanii, jeśli chodzi o przyszłe wzajemne relacje. Nadal możliwe jest cofnięcie decyzji o uruchomieniu artykułu 50 traktatu, czy zaakceptowanie wynegocjowanej umowy lub wyjście bez umowy, co oznaczałoby bardzo duże koszty dla obu stron.
13
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Chiny: potencjał (gospodarczy, polityczny i militarny) jako instrument kształtowania nowego układu międzynarodowego

100%
Żukrowska K.
Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe
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2018
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issue 1
25-48
EN
Chinese economy went through several stages of reform and changes, which enabled economic, political and military advancement of this country. The reforms are dated back to 1979, when first changes in China were proceeded. Reforms started in agriculture sector improving food supply in the country. All this means that period needed to obtain current position by China in the world took nearly half a century. Article presents the gradual evolution of politics and its impact on the economy what was followed by a buildup of political and military potential gaining weight first in the region and after also on global scale. Prognoses of possible changes are presented here based on the assumption that current trends are continued also in the future, and they will embrace regional and global players. It is stressed that an import ant role of the Chinese success story can be ascribed to „opening of the economy” what stimulated inflows of technology, trade as well as direct foreign investments. Some space is given to show the alliance layout and its evolution. The picture is complemented by presentation of instruments which were used in foreign policy. Current tensions are also discussed what is illustrated by the current „trade wars” with the USA. The summing up of the article is presented in a form of possible scenarios which can be applied in the future Chinese policy.
PL
Gospodarka ChRL przeszła przez kilka etapów reform i zmian, które pozwoliły na awans gospodarczy, polityczny i militarny tego państwa. Objęło to okres od 1979 r., kiedy zaczęto w ChRL wdrażać pierwsze reformy. Reformy rozpoczęto od zmian w rolnictwie, co miało na celu poprawę zaopatrzenia w żywność. Oznacza to, że dojście do obecnej pozycji ChRL w świecie zajęło prawie pół wieku. W artykule przedstawia się stopniową ewolucję polityki i jej wpływ na gospodarkę oraz na budowanie potencjału polityczno-militarnego w skali regionu i świata. Przedstawia się tu prognozy zmian przy założeniu dotychczasowego trendu rozwoju w kontekście zarówno regionalnych, jak i globalnych graczy. Podkreśla się znaczenie w tym procesie rozwiązań, które decydowały o „otwarciu gospodarki” na napływ technologii, handel czy transfery bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych. Odrębnym problemem jest wskazanie na układy sojusznicze i ich ewolucję oraz instrumenty stosowane w polityce zagranicznej. Omawia się tu m.in. bieżące napięcia w relacjach np. z USA na tle tzw. „wojen handlowych”. Podsumowanie artykułu zawarte jest w możliwych scenariuszach, które mogą znaleźć zastosowanie w przyszłości w polityce ChRL.
14

TTIP’s Monetary Clause Muddle

63%
Żukrowska K., Dunin-Wąsowicz M.
The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs
|
2015
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issue 3
107-118
EN
We argue that TTIP negotiations, which are focused on improving conditions for mutual trade and investments between the U.S. and the EU, have overlooked the issue of the influence of monetary and exchange rate policies of both sides on the potential results of a prospective agreement. Thus we demonstrate that the agreement should have been supplemented by a monetary clause (MC) in order to avoid a possible mismatch between U.S. and EU currencies. Such a clause, and no other possible currency related legal instruments, should be broad, and aim to regulate the bond between the dollar and the euro. It can work as a convenient springboard to invigorate the multilateral trade system via the institutional nexus of the IMF, WTO, OECD or G-20. The clause can make the agreement as important for strategic relations between the U.S. and the EU as the Treaty of Rome was for the rise of European integration.
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