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EN
The matter of a commercial company branch is still extremely complicated because of organisational reasons as well as due to the existing legislation. First of all, the lack of straightforward and complex law regulation of commercial company branch offices raises serious doubts of theoretical and practical nature. It is also the matter of partial regulations in various acts. Under the present legal system none of the norms accords a legal capacity to organizational units being part of Polish legal entities or other subjects of law. The regulation incorporated in u.s.d.g. states that a commercial company branch will not possess a distinct legal status from the entrepreneur in private law as well as the public sphere.
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This article is directly connected with the issues presented in the article “The historical background for the legal expression of the rule Impossibilium nulla obligatio est (D. 50,17,185) in the German Civil Code”. The mentioned article criticizes, from historical point of view, the enlargement of the application of the Celsus’s rule to the cases of initial subjective and subsequent – both objective and subjective, impossibility of performance. The following article shows some of doctrinal consequences of such an enlargement interpretation. One of them concerns the § 311a (2) BGB, which contains the separate liability regime for the initial impediments of performance. This paragraph entitles the creditor to claim damages in lieu of performance, unless the debtor did know of the impediment when the contract was concluded, and was not responsible for not having known about it. The debtor held liable for the positive interest. This regulations is firstly presented in relation to its doctrinal inconsistency. Afterwards, it is presented in relation to the proposition of the analogy application of § 122 BGB when the debtor is not responsible for not knowing about the impediment, to make him liable at least for the negative interest. Finally this regulation was evaluated in relation to the demand of staying in the line with the Principles of European Contract Law and the UNIDROIT-Principles.
EN
The focus of the article is on the interpretation of art. 235 §1 of the Polish Civil Code, which concerns buildings and other objects erected on the property in perpetual usufruct. According to the abovementioned provision of the Civil Code, such buildings and objects constitute real property separate from the ownership of the plot of land on which they are erected. It is the holder of the right of perpetual usufruct who is also the owner of the constructions present on the property. The regulation in question is an exception to the superficies solo cedit principle. However, the civil law doctrine and the case law is not uniform as far as the scope of the above exception is concerned. Some authors put great emphasis on the phrase to be found in art. 235 §1 CC according to which the perpetual usufruct holder gets the ownership only of these buildings and objects that are erected by him. In case of constructions erected by other persons (e.g. leasees), they would only constitute an element of the land and would be covered by the same ownership title. The author of the article takes an opposite view. In his opinion the literal meaning of art. 235 §1 CC is not decisive and all constructions erected on the property should be treated equally, whoever raised them. This view has been recently supported by the Polish Supreme Court in its judgment of November 25, 2011. All activities upon the property are undertaken on the account of the perpetual usufruct holder who remains liable against the owner of the land but who also gets the ownership of all new buildings and other objects that are firmly fixed to the ground. The author argues that only this interpretation allows to avoid unnecessary complications concerning the mutual relations between the owner of the land, the perpetual usufruct holder and the person who raised a building or another object. Additionally, it is demonstrated that the proposed understanding of art. 235 §1 CC greatly helps in applying the tax law rules with regard to identifying a person obliged to pay the real property tax concerning objects erected on the land.
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EN
The aim of the study is to present the selected legal concepts of online commerce. Elec-tronic commerce is still a relatively young, and thus only emerging, field of legal and economic marketing. Nevertheless, it exerts a serious and enormous influence on the entirety of social, economic and legal relations on a global scale. Bearing in mind this as-sumption the author pays attention to the selected topics of online commerce that leads to a conclusion that the existing legal and jurisprudential traditions are able to adapt to new, specific challenges posed by the development of technological civilization.
EN
The purpose of this article is to show some doubts concerning the unification of private law in the European Union. The reference point for the discussion is European Civil Code. Particular attention is paid to the problems arising around legislative works including lack of common terminology, identifying the subject and scope of regulations or methodology of studies that were made. Considerations are crowned by the conclusion that, although there are serious doubts as to competence of the European Union in scope of making of European Civil Code and lack of political will from member states, these are not impossible to overcome problems and the major hurdle is made by the differences between the continental law system and the common law.
EN
The legal position of debtors in solidum with recourse claims between themselves is not an easy issue. It’s not fully governed by applicable law. The mere possibility of bringing an action for one of the joint and several debtors to inappropriately determine the degree of contributing to a greater damage against co-debtors in solidum based on the norm of Article 189 of the Code of Civil Procedure and the freedom of the court to determine claims between debtors in solidum depends on many factors. The purpose of this article is to answer the above-mentioned problem, as well as to indicate what conditions must be met by the claimant (the debtor in solidum) in order to be able to successfully bring the claim.
PL
Pozycja prawna dłużników in solidum przy roszczeniach zwrotnych między nimi samymi nie jest zagadnieniem łatwym. Nie regulują jej w pełni przepisy obowiązującego prawa. Sama możliwość wystąpienia z powództwem o ustalenie przez jednego z dłużników solidarnych niewłaściwie stopnia przyczynienia się do powstania szkody w większym rozmiarze przeciwko współdłużnikom in solidum na gruncie art. 189 k.p.c. oraz swoboda sądu w określaniu roszczeń między dłużnikami in solidum jest uzależniona od wielu czynników. Celem niniejszego artykułu jest odpowiedź na przedstawiony powyżej problem, jak również wskazanie, jakie warunki muszą być spełnione przez powoda (tu dłużnika in solidum), by mógł skutecznie wystąpić z przedmiotowym powództwem.
PL
Celem artykułu jest identyfikacja czynników mających wpływ na koszty transakcyjne dochodzenia praw z umów pomiędzy przedsiębiorcami w sprawach gospodarczych. Na potrzeby artykułu przeprowadzono pilotażowe badanie 210 spraw sądowych zawisłych przed Sądem Okręgowym w Gdańsku w pierwszej instancji po 2009 r., w których wyrok wydano w 2012 r. (ostatnie 210 spraw) a od wyroku wniesiono apelację do Sądu Apelacyjnego w Gdańsku i zakończono postępowanie przed 2013 r. Badanie miało charakter studium przypadku, którego celem była identyfikacja czynników mających wpływ na koszty transakcyjne dochodzenia praw z umów po stronie podażowej, czyli w ramach działania sądów. Na koszty transakcyjne dochodzenia praw z umów składają się nie tylko koszty opłaty sądowej i zastępstwa procesowego, określone normatywnie, ale także - co jest oczywiste - czas niezbędny do wyegzekwowania praw wynikających z umowy. W badaniu podjęto próbę odpowiedzi na dwa pytania badawcze. Po pierwsze, które z czynników mają wpływ na czas rozpoznania sprawy, począwszy od jej wpływu do sądu pierwszej instancji aż do wydania wyroku w drugiej instancji, a po drugie - na ile poziom zawiłości sprawy przekłada się na czas rozpoznania sprawy. Wyniki badań pozwoliły na wstępne wyselekcjonowanie podstawowych czynników identyfikujących poziom skomplikowania sprawy. Autorzy artykułu przyjęli, że należą do nich: liczba tomów zgromadzonych w trakcie rozpoznania sprawy, liczba rozpraw oraz liczba stron uzasadnienia wyroku w pierwszej i drugiej instancji.
EN
The aim of the article is to identify factors influencing the transaction costs of the enforcement of contracts concluded between entrepreneurs in business matters. For the purpose of the article, a pilot study was conducted involving 210 court cases pending before the District Court in Gdańsk in the first instance after 2009, in which the judgment was issued in 2012 (the last 210 cases) and for which the appeal was lodged to the Appeals Court in Gdańsk and the proceedings were concluded before 2013. The conducted case study was to identify factors influencing the transaction costs of contractual rights on the supply side, i.e. as part of court activity. Transaction costs of contract enforcement include not only the costs of court fees and legal representation, which are defined normatively, but also - and what is obvious - the time necessary to exercise rights under the contract. The study attempted to answer two research questions. First, which factors influence the time of consideration of the case, from the moment it reaches the court of first instance up to the second-instance judgment, and second - to what extent the level of complexity of the case is correlated with the time of its examination. The results enabled preselecting the basic factors that identify the level of complexity of the case. It was assumed in this article that they include: the number of volumes accumulated throughout the examination of the case, the number of hearings, and the number of pages of justification of the first- and second-instance judgment.
EN
Article 446[2] of the Civil Code – added to the Civil Code by the Act of June 24, 2021 – stipulates civil liability for ‘the inability to establish or continue a family relation’. Pursuant to Article 2 of the amending Act, Article 446[2] of the Civil Code is meant to apply also to events which result in the inability of immediate family members to establish or continue a family relation with the victim caused by a serious and permanent injury to his body or a health disorder, occurring before the date of entry into force of the Act, i.e. before September 19, 2021. These provisions raise some doubts as they impose new duties on subjects of civil law retroactively and without sufficient constitutional justification. The analysis of the Supreme Court’s case law preceding their introduction reveals discrepancies as regards the admissibility and purposefulness of awarding compensation for restrictions in family relations. Family ties which ex definitione bind a family group together are not the goods of a single person, so their protection through provisions on the protection of personal rights and tort law was questionable.
PL
Przepis art. 446[2] k.c. – dodany do Kodeksu cywilnego ustawą z dnia 24.6.2021 r. – statuuje odpowiedzialność cywilną za „niemożność nawiązania lub kontynuowania więzi rodzinnej”. Na mocy art. 2 ustawy nowelizującej przepis art. 446[2] k.c. ma mieć zastosowanie również do zdarzeń, których skutkiem jest niemożność nawiązania lub kontynuowania więzi rodzinnej przez najbliższych członków rodziny z poszkodowanym, spowodowana ciężkim i trwałym uszkodzeniem jego ciała lub wywołaniem rozstroju zdrowia, powstałych przed dniem wejścia w życie ustawy, tj. sprzed 19 września 2021 r. Przepisy te budzą pewne wątpliwości, ponieważ nakładają retroaktywnie i bez dostatecznego uzasadnienia konstytucyjnego nowe obowiązki na podmioty prawa cywilnego. Analiza poprzedzającego ich wprowadzenie orzecznictwa Sądu Najwyższego wykazuje rozbieżności w kwestii samej dopuszczalności i celowości przyznawania zadośćuczynień za ograniczenia w stosunkach rodzinnych. Więzi rodzinne ex definitione spajające grupę rodzinną nie są dobrami jednej osoby, dlatego ich ochrona za pomocą przepisów o ochronie dóbr osobistych i prawa deliktowego była wątpliwa.
EN
In today’s world, succession laws have to contend with the rapid social and cultural transformation that has caused several changes within the family structure during the past few decades. Have these changes found sufficient expression in the manner in which the legal systems presently deal with questions of inheritance, and in particular the age-old dispute regarding freedom of testation versus reserved portions? This article reviews the present situation as well as some of the social and other changes that so challenge contemporary inheritance laws, the main legal traditions in this respect, and the extent of local variation within these.
PL
W dzisiejszym świecie, prawa spadkowe muszą się zmagać z gwałtownymi zmianami kulturowymi i społecznymi w strukturze rodzinnej przez ostatnie dekady. Czy owe zmiany są wystarczająco odzwierciedlane w ustawodawstwie spadkowym, szczególnie w wiecznym sporze o wolność dziedziczenia i zachowku? Tematem niniejszej pracy jest przegląd obecnej sytuacji i niektórych zmian społecznych i innych które stanowią wyzwanie współczesnemu ustawodawstwie spadkowemu, najważniejszych tradycji prawnych w tej dziedzinie i różnic lokalnych.
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