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EN
During the Saxon period (1697–1763) the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth experienced an extremely serious crisis. The latter, however, did not come into being in 1697, but was a continuum of the inferior functioning of the Polish Parliament already during the previous years. In the course of the Saxon era this crisis grew more grievous as demonstrated by the intervention of foreign states (Russia, Prussia, the Empire, France, and partly Sweden) into the functioning of the Polish Parliament. The outcome assumed the form of a paralysis of the legislature, making it impossible to carry out indispensable reforms within the state. At the time of Augustus II the Strong (1697–1733) the Sejms partly fulfilled their function and were even capable of introducing order into the legal treasury system in Poland (e.g. the Silent Sejm in 1717), but during the reign of Augustus III (1734–63) the Sejm became the sole arena of the political struggle waged by the royal court and magnate factions, often supported by neighbouring countries. The symbol of the role played by this particular monarch was the solitary Sejm held at the time, which ended with the passage of a constitution (the pacification Sejm of 1736). Despite its decline the Sejm remained of considerable importance for the nobility of the modern era. Conceived as a symbol of the functioning of the state it was treated as pupilla libertatis, a personification of the sovereign existence of the state and an institution indispensable for reforming and modernising the country.
EN
The Polish State, with due regard to the time constraints on its continuity, is perceived from the perspective of more than a thousand years. Simultaneously, as an organised entity with its own values, it has been a mental problem for Poles since the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries and is continued until now. Thus, the reflections here have been restricted to the mentioned period because it is then that the main drawbacks of the Polish State began to occur. They include a description of these major flaws as we understand them and their effects. We often express the belief that our state disappeared from the map of Europe mainly due to the actions of our aggressive and finally partitioning neighbours. However, in doing so, we distance ourselves from the mistakes in managing the state made by the generations of our ancestors. This article analyses and exemplifies a deeper, critical academic reflection on these errors committed internally during the mentioned period and visible until today.
EN
The review concerns an edition of Albert Vimina’s work "History of civil wars in Poland" ("Historia delle guerre civili in Polonia") by Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel. Th e edition consists of two main parts. The first, which is an extensive introduction, was devoted mainly to the description of Albert Vimina’s biography. The second part contains "The History of Civil Wars in Poland", which consists of five books on 196 pages. The main part contains descriptions of the struggles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with the Zaporizhian Cossacks in the years 1648-1651. The following three parts, attached to "The History of Civil Wars in Poland", are also related to the author’s personal observations. As I have already mentioned, the reviewed edition is published in Poland for the first time and it has been prepared with knowledge of editorial art and in accordance with the recommendations of the publishing manual. It must be emphasized at this point that what clearly distinguishes it from the Lithuanian edition from 2012 is, above all, the excellent translation and extensive set of footnotes. In conclusion, it must be said with certainty that we have received a very successful edition and, what is worth emphasizing, not the last one in the publisher’s output.
EN
Bernard Connor held the position of Jan III Sobieski’s personal physician for a year. One of the outcomes of his time in Poland is the two-volume The History of Poland, which was published in London in 1698. Not only does the work provide interesting historical facts relating to the country, but it also reveals details concerning the professional job carried out by the author. He was, for instance, particularly interested in curious medical cases and the interplay between behaviour and health. One of the most well-known and engaging section of his work concerns the notes on the “kołtun” and the reflections on the cause of Poles’ strong and good health.
PL
Polski konstytucjonalizm ma znacznie starszą metrykę niż zazwyczaj kojarzony z nim 1791 r. Wszak w materialnym znaczeniu terminu konstytucja jest synomimem ustroju politycznego, a zatem towarzyszy ona polskiej państwowości od jej zarania. Ewolucja rodzimej monarchii doprowadziła do powstania znaczących dokumentów jurydycznych, tworzących sformalizowaną część nadwiślańskiego konstytucjonalizmu, uzupełnianą przez zwyczaje. Obejmowały one niespisane ustrojowe fundamenty, które w 1767 r. uległy instytucjonalizacji w postaci Praw kardynalnych. Można je traktować jako pierwszą polsko-litewską konstytucję, jeśli pod tym pojęciem będziemy rozumieć zawierający najważniejsze dla państwa postanowienia akt o najwyższej jurydycznej mocy. W 1791 r. stała się nim Ustawa Rządowa z 3 Maja, przekreślająca dorobek rodzimego konstytucjonalizmu w imię dostosowania się do ówczesnych eurostandartów.
EN
Polish constitutionalism has sufficiently old tradition. In the material sense constitution means political system, so she is as old as our state. In the process of evolution in ourmonarchy appeared any important juridicial acts, which composed institutionalised part of native constitutionalism apart from fundamental for political regime customs. In 1767 these basic principles were published as Cardinal laws, which may be treated as original summit of lithuanian-polish constitutionalism. His end arrived in 1791 year, when in the name of progress was proclamed co called Constitution of Third May, which annihilated our original model of constitutional statehood.
EN
Th e article describes two Cyrillic Gospels from the Kórnik Library: BK 11985 and BK 896. It presents the cultural context of their creation, as well as their history, content, illuminations and a short lexical description. Both codices were the result of a cultural and spiritual revival in the Orthodox Church in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Both of them were luxury, professionally made goods; their copyists were experienced specialists. BK 896 represents a higher level of artistry. In view of their lexical characteristics, the manuscripts can be classifi ed as the third so-called Mount Athos-Tyrnovo linguistic redaction of the Gospel.
EN
The study focuses on the problems of British-Dominion relations with a special regard to the share of the Dominions in formation, execution and direction of the imperial foreign policy in the 1920s and at the beginning of the 1930s. In the post war period, it was expected that recognition of a formal independence and a new international status of the British Dominions would be take place. Concurrently with a wider conception of the Dominion autonomy, a more intensive cooperation was realised within the Empire, which gradually led to a bigger interest of the overseas autonomous units in the decision-making process concerning the direction of the imperial foreign policy. The observed problems concentrated on two main fronts, it means the measure of consultations among the mother country and the Dominions and individual foreign policy questions, crisis, incidents and events that, in reality, contributed to a discussion concerning the share of overseas autonomous units in the formation and execution of the Imperial foreign policy from the side of the British Foreign Office. Balfour Declaration adoption, increasing the importance of the Dominions, began the period that was significant with pacification of debates concerning execution of the imperial foreign policy and during which it was necessary to wait for next few years for this status legislative approval till the adoption of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931.
PL
The article discusses the political reasons for the Khmelnytsky Uprising, as they were expressed in the opinions of the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The outbreak of the Cossack insurrection led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky with the beginning of 1648, which from the first moment stimulated the broad strata of Ukrainian society and quickly transformed into a national liberation war, provoked terror in broad circles of the nobility. An additional factor influencing the mood of the noblemen was the growing awareness of Khmelnytsky’s political ambitions, the implementation of which was a deadly threat to the current political system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Therefore, the main part of the publication is devoted to discussing the views of the nobility on the subject of political motives underlying the Cossacks’ armed resistance against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These opinions fundamentally influenced the noblemen’s assessment of the nature of the uprising. Detailed analysis is presented concerning such sources as correspondence, lauda, and sejmik instructions as well as occasional and journalistic literature. It is emphasised that there was a conviction among the nobility of the Republic of the political motives of the Cossack uprising. This conviction was based mainly on the news coming to the noblemen about Khmelnytsky’s aspirations to separate Ukraine and build an independent state entity, referred to by the nobility as the Russian Principality. Understanding of the emancipatory aspirations of the insurgents by the gentry had a huge impact on the shape of the Republic of Poland’s policy towards the events in Ukraine in the second half of the seventeenth century. Consequently, one of its main goals was to stop the movement that posed a threat to the wholeness and existence of the state.
EN
This article analyses the development of political relations between Great Britain and Canada in the era between the Statute of Westminster in both countries (1931) and the signing of the defensive agreement in Ogdensburg between Canada and the United States of America (August 1940). The article discusses the attitude of both countries to the key events and developments of the period: the Great Depression, the Imperial Economic Conference in Ottawa (1932), the Imperial Conference in London (1937) and the threat of another world war. When the Second World War started in September 1939, Canada joined the war on the side of its mother country. The rapid changes, however, had made Canada move closer to the United States of America in the economic and military spheres.
CS
Studie se zaměřuje na analýzu vývoje zahraničněpolitických vztahů mezi Velkou Británií a Kanadou od přijetí Westminsterského statutu v obou zemích roku 1931 do uzavření obranné smlouvy mezi Kanadou a Spojenými státy americkými v Ogdensburgu v srpnu roku 1940. Studie zkoumá přístup obou zemí ke klíčovým událostem zvoleného období: Velká hospodářská krize, imperiální ekonomická konference v Ottawě v roce 1932, imperiální konference v Londýně roku 1937 a hrozby váleč- ného střetu ve světě. Když v září 1939 vypukla druhá světová válka, vstoupila do ní Kanada po boku své mateřské země. Rychlé změny měly však za následek přibližování Kanady ke Spojeným státům americkým v ekonomické i vojenské oblasti.
EN
The contribution is focused on the analysis of the British-Canadian relations in connexion with the Conclusion of the American-Canadian Halibut Treaty of 1923 with special regard to the constitutional relations between the mother country and its Dominions, which along with foreign and economic policy formed one of the most significant and interesting chapters in British imperial history in the 1920s. AÝer the First World War, some overseas representatives maintained a position that the Dominions were now equal countries with Britain and, on top of that, that they were no longer in a subsidiary position and were united by common obligations towards the Crown and their membership in the British Empire. Àe circumstances and discussions that accompanied the negotiation and conclusion of the Halibut Treaty between the United States of America and the Dominion of Canada all were reflected to a large extent in a clearer definition of the constitutional status of the Dominions and the problems of negotiation, conclusion and ratification of international treaties.
CS
Příspěvek je založen na analýze britsko-kanadských vztahů v souvislosti s uzavřením americko-kanadské Platýzové smlouvy z roku 1923 se zvláštním zřetelem ke konstitucionálním vztahům mezi mateřskou zemí a dominii, jež tvořily vedle imperiální zahraniční a hospodářské politiky jednu z nejvýznamnějších a nejzajímavějších kapitol britských imperiálních dějin ve dvacátých letech 20. století. Po skončení první světové války zastávali někteří zámořští představitelé názor, že dominia jsou rovnoprávné země s Británií, že se již nenachází v subsidiárním postavení a že je pojí společné závazky vůči Koruně a členství v britském impériu. Okolnosti a diskuse, které doprovázely vyjednávání a uzavření tzv. Platýzové smlouvy mezi Spojenými státy americkými a dominiem Kanada se nemalou měrou odrazily v potřebě jasněji vymezit konstitucionální postavení dominií a problematiku sjednávání, signování a ratifikování mezinárodních smluv.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono działania rosyjskiej cesarzowej Katarzyny II, mające na celu wyłączenie parafii unickich spod jurysdykcji Kościoła Rzymskokatolickiego w nowo włączonych do Rosji z Rzeczypospolitej ziemiach ukraińskich. Na podstawie materiałów archiwalnych wykazano opór kleru i parafian Kościoła Greckokatolickiego wobec gwałtownego powrotu do Kościoła Prawosławnego.
EN
The article shows the actions taken by the Russian Empress Yekaterina II. They were aimed at excluding Greek Catholic parishes of the Ukraine from the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church. They had been the part of Commonwealth of Poland and became newly-connected to Russia. It demonstrates, on the base of archival materials, the resistance of the clergy and parishioners of the Greek Catholic Church to the violent return to the Orthodox Church.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia poglądy wybitnego brytyjskiego polityka i myśliciela, Edmunda Burke’a (1730–1797), na sytuację Rzeczypospolitej. Burke poświęcił jej sprawom niewiele uwagi, jednak w oparciu o jej przykład sformułował kilka tez na temat wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych przyczyn upadku państw. Poglądy te rozwinął w ostatnich latach swej działalności, koncentrując uwagę na rewolucji francuskiej.
EN
The article presents the opinions and views of the outstanding British politician and thinker, Edmund Burke (1730– 1797), on the situation of the Commonwealth. Burke devoted little attention to Polish affairs, but using its example, he formulated some theses on the internal and external reasons for the collapse of states. These views he developed in the last years of his activity, focusing on the French revolution.
PL
Złożoność struktury polityczno-ustrojowej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów podkreślały, mocą swego szczególnego statusu, funkcjonujące w jej ramach księstwa. Większość z nich weszła w skład Rzeczpospolitej na skutek postanowień Unii Lubelskiej (1569 r.). Wraz z innymi podmiotami (posiadłości szlacheckie, terytoria dużych miastach królewskich, posiadłości kościelne, etc.), wzmacniały terytorialno-administracyjną decentralizację wspólnoty. Dla porządku politycznego nowożytnej Europy, takie skomplikowane struktury polityczno-terytorialny był częstym zjawiskiem, charakterystyczne w szczególności dla ówczesnych Niemiec. Księstwa magnatów Rzeczypospolitej miał więc status podobny funkcjonujących w tym samym czasie księstw niemieckich. W przeciwieństwie jednak do tych ostatnich, z chwila upadku dawnego porządku politycznego, nawet najbardziej potężne i wyróżniające się swym statusem (księstwa, ordynacje) państwa magnackie, nie zostały nigdy na forum międzynarodowym uznane za odrębne państwa. Okoliczności te nie negują jednak polityczno-prawnego statusu księstw Rzeczpospolitej jako terytoriów o charakterze państwowym (publiczno-prawnym) w ramach przednowoczesnego porządku politycznego. Stan ten potwierdzały związki rodzinne polsko-litewskich książąt z rodami zagranicznych książąt panujących, utrzymywane do końca istnienia Rzeczypospolitej.
EN
The complexity of the political structure of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was amplified by the territories of the duchies. Along with the other subjects (smaller magnates’ lordships, territories of the large royal cities, church possessions, etc.), they strengthened the administrative-territorial decentralisation of the Commonwealth. In the political order for early modern Europe such a complex political-territorial structure was a frequent phenomenon, characteristic, in particular, for the early modern Germany. The duchies of the magnates of the Commonwealth had, therefore, the political and legal status similar to that of the German duchies, existing at the same time. Contrary, though, to the German duchies, the magnate states in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, even the most powerful ones and the most pronounced as to their rank (like duchies and entails) did never acquire the formalisation (recognition) of their separate status on the modern international forum. With this respect, similarly as the entire territory of the Commonwealth, they belonged to the pre-modern order. This, however, does not negate the political and legal status of the magnate duchies in the framework of the pre-modern political system. This status was confirmed by the family ties of the Polish-Lithuanian dukes with the foreign ducal ruling families, maintained until the collapse of Commonwealth (1795).
EN
The First World War represented the biggest challenge and a test of cohesion for the individual parts of the Empire. Newly, the dominions were to reach full recognition as autonomous nations of the imperial community. Participation of the Dominions at the Paris Peace Conference and the issues discussed there influenced the status of the Dominions not only to their mother country, but also to the wider world. All the Dominions, except for Newfoundland, found themselves among members of the new international organisation – the League of Nations. In addition, Dominion delegates also signed the Treaty of Versailles, which the overseas leaders considered a formal recognition of their formal independence on the part of the British. However, in contrast to the expectations of the Dominion representatives, a symbolic recognition of their new status did not take place and, therefore, the world continued to regard them as an integral part of the British Empire, i.e. that the British still represented them in many aspects on the outside. The course of the conference, however, did confirm that it was not possible to view the Dominions as “ordinary” colonies or dependent territories anymore. The First World War strengthened the general trend heading towards a broader understanding of autonomy and to a more intense cooperation within the Empire.
PL
The work consists of an introduction and ten essays that both reflect the author’s extensive research interests and testify to her extremely rich and multi-coloured personality. It should also be noted that the discussed collection of studies by T. Chynczewska-Hennel in the vast majority was already rated very positively by American, Canadian, Italian, French, and Ukrainian historians, as it consists of articles that previously appeared in foreign publications. The essays presented in this book offer a highly focused overview of the numerous problems which were at the centre of Chynczewska’s scientific interests and which were thoroughly and clearly examined in her books. They also offer shining evidence of the author’s constant ethical engagement, her tireless search for the many points of contact between cultures and narratives which were opposed by cynical political goals, human envy, thirst for power, as well as by the inability of numerous leaders and social groups to look for genuine human values and interests that should have overridden their own egoism and the short-term interests of a specific group or class in the near-sighted “here and now”. To sum up, it should be noted that the reviewed work is not only of high scientific value but also intellectually inspiring. Other values of the book that should be highlighted here are, on the one hand, easier access to the author’s sometimes difficult to obtain texts and, on the other, the ability to accurately trace her extremely accurate insights on various issues.
Horyzonty Polityki
|
2022
|
vol. 13
|
issue 45
219-229
EN
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: The research objective of this article is to present the different ways in which the sixteenth-century representatives of the Polish intellectual and political elites, who supported republicanism, defined and understood freedom. THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The research problem centres around the description of a model of liberty within the framework defined by the legal order. The key issue was to capture the relationship between, on the one hand, the scope of civil liberty and, on the other hand, the way in which state legal norms were defined and created. THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: After highlighting the importance of freedom as a key category and concept for political thought, the views on freedom and a republic of three sixteenth-century Polish political writers – Stanisław Orzechowski, Wawrzyniec Goślicki, and Piotr Skarga – are discussed. In their political considerations, they paid attention to different aspects, as each of them represented one of the three key “political subjects” ingrained in: democracy (local parliaments called sejmik), aristocracy (senate), and monarchy (king). RESEARCH RESULTS: The analysis conducted in the article allows the following conclusion to be formulated: a characteristic feature of Polish political thought in the sixteenth century, which stemmed from the concept of natural law ingrained in Catholicism, was the definition of freedom as human actions fully compatible with both natural and positive law and the conviction that the most appropriate system to guarantee it was a republic.  CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The main recommendation stemming from the analysis is to present the views of Polish political writers on the same topics from three perspectives: those typical of Protestants, Arians, and supporters of absolute monarchy.
PL
CEL NAUKOWY: Celem naukowym jest przedstawienie sposobu definiowania oraz rozumienia wolności przez przedstawicieli polskich elit intelektualnych i politycznych, orędowników idei republikanizmu – szesnastowiecznych pisarzy politycznych spoglądających na republikę z nieco odmiennych punktów widzenia. PROBLEM i METODY BADAWCZE: Problem badawczy koncentruje się wokół ukazania modelu wolności w ramach określanych przez porządek prawny. Kwestią kluczową dla badanej materii było uchwycenie relacji pomiędzy z jednej strony zakresem wolności obywatelskiej, a sposobem definiowania i zarazem tworzenia norm prawa państwowego z drugiej. PROCES WYWODU: Po podkreśleniu znaczenia wolności jako kategorii i pojęcia dla myśli politycznej, omówione zostały poglądy na wolność oraz republikę trzech polskich pisarzy politycznych XVI wieku: Stanisława Orzechowskiego, Wawrzyńca Goślickiego oraz Piotra Skargi. W swych rozważaniach politycznych odmiennie rozkładali akcenty, bowiem związani byli z trzema kluczowymi „podmiotami politycznymi” właściwymi dla demokracji (sejmiki), arystokracji (senat) i monarchii (król). WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Na podstawie przeprowadzonej analizy można przyjąć za prawdziwą następującą tezę: cechą polskiej myśli politycznej XVI wieku – wyrastającej na gruncie klasycznej dla katolicyzmu koncepcji prawa naturalnego – było definiowanie wolności jako działań ludzkich w pełni zgodnych tak z prawem naturalnym, jak i pozytywnym oraz przekonanie, że najwłaściwszym dla jej zagwarantowania jest ustrój republiki (respubliki). WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Za główną rekomendację należy uznać potrzebę prezentacji poglądów polskich pisarzy politycznych na tę samą materię z perspektywy protestanckiej, ariańskiej, ale i tej właściwej dla zwolenników monarchii absolutnej.
EN
The main purpose of this paper is to present the place of King of the Commonwealth formed in 1569 as a connection of Kingdom Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania being an organ of the Commonwealth, carrying out the superiority over the territories they were her fiefs. In the paper was presented an evolution of fiefs superiority as a part of public law relations that were in the period of 14.–16. Century, when still existed only Kingdom of Poland, one of prerogatives of Polish King’s authority. After 1569, when the Commonwealth was formed, especially after 1573 – 1576 when were passed and gathered a binding force of law the Henrician Articles, the place of King in political and law system of the Commonwealth changed, what had the influence for the character and range, but also the way of execution the King’s superiority over the fiefs, that now from the juridical point of view became a subject of the Commonwealth power. In the following changes of political system of the Commonwealth, the King’s actions, performed a role an executive organ, made independently in exceptional situations as it were in the case of Prussian Fief and Lauenburg-Bytow Fief in 1657 need a confirmation of Diet of the Commonwealth. This situation were connected with the change of function of the fief relations and feudal law as an instrument regulated a political relations. The fiefs superiority as a King’s prerogative over the fiefs of the Commonwealth was in next time completely taken from personal elements staying as an empower to execution of feudal law of the Commonwealth represented through the kings post. In the age of the development of the international in 17. and especially in 18. Century, the ways of theirregulating of instruments of feudal law had began to be a relict, its application was dependent from the power and ability of the subject for his execution. However to weakness of theCommonwealth in 18. Century and decreasing of the role and position of Kings authority, it was more and more only formal. Leaving only a nominal superiority, political and juridical this became purely a fiction.
PL
Przedmiotem pracy jest omówienie pozycji króla Rzeczypospolitej powstałej w 1569 r. jako połączenie Królestwa Polski i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, będącego organem Rzeczypospolitej, wykonującego zwierzchnictwo nad terytoriami stanowiącymi jej lenna. W pracy przedstawiona została ewolucja zwierzchnictwa lennego, jako sfery stosunków publicznoprawnych, należących w okresie XIV–XVI w., a więc w okresie istnienia jeszcze Królestwa Polskiego, do jednej z prerogatyw władzy króla polskiego. Po 1569 r., kiedy powstała Rzeczpospolita, a zwłaszcza po 1573–1576 r., gdy przyjęto, a następnie nabrały mocy obowiązującej Artykuły henrykowskie, pozycja prawnoustrojowa króla się zmieniła, co miało wpływ na charakter i zakres, jak też sposób wykonywania królewskiego zwierzchnictwa nad lennami, które stały się przedmiotem władzy Rzeczypospolitej. W postępujących zmianach ustrojowych Rzeczypospolitej, działania króla, pełniącego rolę organu wykonawczego, dokonywane w sytuacjach wyjątkowych samodzielnie, jak w przypadku lenna pruskiego, czy lęborsko-bytowskiego w 1657 r., wymagały zatwierdzenia przez Sejm Rzeczypospolitej. Sytuacja ta pokazywała zmianę funkcji stosunków lennych i prawa lennego jako instrumentu regulującego stosunki polityczne. Prerogatywa monarsza, jaką było sprawowanie zwierzchnictwa nad lennami Rzeczypospolitej, została z czasem całkowicie pozbawiona elementów osobistych, pozostając, jako umocowanie do wykonywania praw do lenna Rzeczypospolitej, reprezentowanej przez urząd królewski. W dobie jednakże rozwoju stosunków międzynarodowych w XVII, a zwłaszcza w XVIII w., sposoby ich regulowania instrumentami prawa lennego stanowić zaczynały przeżytek, którego stosowanie zależne było od siły i zdolności podmiotu do jej wykonywania. Wobec jednak osłabienia Rzeczypospolitej w XVIII w., a tym samym pomniejszenia znaczenia i pozycji władzy królewskiej, była ona coraz bardziej formalna. Pozostając jedynie zwierzchnictwem nominalnym, politycznie i prawnie stawała się fikcją.
EN
The purpose of this article is to present, through the analysis of available sources, both printed and interactive, a cultural phenomenon that has developed over the centuries in the smallest continental country of Africa, The Gambia. Through the course of West African history, a significant number of ethnic groups have settled off the Atlantic coast, in the historic area of Senegambia. In the twentieth century, these diverse socio-cultural ethnic groups found themselves living within the borders of one state, understanding that they must learn to live in harmony and maintain inner peace. For centuries, religion and customs have dictated peace, bringing harmony to the Gambian nation. The celebration of international events such as The Commonwealth Day became an excellent opportunity to present one’s own culture and heritage on the global scale as well as to make the youngest generations aware of their own cultural roots, teaching them how to preserve their memory of the cultural history and traditions.
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EN
In the last part of the Empire trilogy, Commonwealth, Negri and Hardt ask about the possibility of the self-governance of the multitude. When answering, they argue that absolute democracy, understood as the political articulation of the multitude that does not entail its unification (construction of the people) is possible. As Negri states, this way of thinking about political articulation is rooted in the tradition of democratic materialism and constitutes the alternative to the dominant current of modern political philosophy that identifies political power with sovereignty. The multitude organizes itself politically by means of the constitutive power, identical with the ontological creativity or productivity of the multitude. To state the problem of political organization means to state the problem of class composition: political democracy is at the same time economic democracy.
PL
W ostatniej części trylogii Imperium, Rzeczy-pospolitej, Negri i Hardt pytają o sposób, w jaki wielość może rządzić sama sobą. W odpowiedzi stawiają tezę, że absolutna demokracja, pojmowana jako polityczna artykulacja wielości, niezakładająca jej redukcji do zunifikowanego podmiotu (ludu), jest możliwa. Jak stwierdza Negri, ten sposób myślenia o politycznej artykulacji jest zakorzeniony w tradycji demokratycznego materializmu, stanowiącej alternatywę dla dominującego w nowożytnej filozofii polityki nurtu utożsamiającego władzę polityczną z suwerennością. Wielość organizuje się politycznie dzięki władzy konstytuującej, tożsamej z ontologiczną kreatywnością/produktywnością wielości. Postawienie kwestii politycznej organizacji wymaga więc także postawienia kwestii składu klasowego wielości; demokracja polityczna jest zarazem demokracją ekonomiczną.
EN
In this interview taken shortly after the launch of the Italian translation of the Commonwealth, Antonio Negri, besides discussing details of his collaboration with Michael Hardt, addresses the most important topics of the book, which could remain unclear for the readers. He gives a wide range of answers for the questions on, for example, importance of revision and revitalization of seventeenth century’s categories, what does it mean to be a communist today, elaboration of the thesis of real subsumption. He also stresses the significance of the struggle over the common and processes of its institutionalization for contemporary revolutionary politics and faces criticism of the conception of immaterial and biopolitical labour.
PL
W wywiadzie przeprowadzonym świeżo po publikacji włoskiego tłumaczenia Rzeczy-pospolitej Antonio Negri, oprócz opisywania sposobu, w jaki przebiegała jego współpraca z Michaelem Hardtem, omawia również najważniejsze dla książki węzły problemowe, które mogły pozostawać niejasne dla czytelnika. Odpowiada na pytania o znaczenie rewizji i ożywienia siedemnastowiecznych kategorii pojęciowych, o znaczenie bycia komunistą, o przepracowanie tezy o realnej subsumcji. Negri podkreśla również istotność walki o dobro wspólne oraz jego instytucjonalizację, jak również zmaga się z krytykami koncepcji pracy niematerialnej i biopolitycznej.
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