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Celibat duchownych – normy prawne, jego motywacje i praktyka w Kościele galijskim od połowy IV do połowy VI w. w świetle kanonów synodów kościelnych

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Kołosowski T.
Vox Patrum
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2020
|
vol. 75
285-298
EN
In the beginning, the ancient Church understood celibacy as a state of being unmarried of one’s own free-will. Once, married men were admitted to the clerical state. From the mid-third century, unmarried men who were ordained, could not marry. From the fourth century, the formal law of celibacy was introduced prescribing a total sexual abstinence in relations with one’s wife. These legal norms were confirmed by numerous synods in Gaul to ensure their observance. Abstinence under celibacy is motivated mainly by a cult continence, the teaching of the Gospel and that of St. Paul the Apostle. Non-observance was sanctioned by different penalties, especially removal from the office and excommunication.
PL
W Kościele starożytnym na początku celibat rozumiany jako bezżeństwo był dobrowolny. Bez ograniczeń święcono raz żonatych mężczyzn. Od połowy III w. zabraniano mężczyznom nieżonatym w chwili święceń zawierania małżeństwa po ich przyjęciu. Od IV w. powstało formalne prawo celibatu w sensie wymagania całkowitej wstrzemięźliwości seksualnej w relacjach z żoną. Te normy prawne potwierdzają liczne synody kościelne w Galii i przypominają o obowiązku ich przestrzegania. Celibat wstrzemięźliwości jest motywowany głównie wstrzemięźliwością kultową a także nauczaniem ewangelicznym i św. Pawła Apostoła. Za nieprzestrzeganie tych norm grożą różne kary kościelne, jakimi najczęściej są złożenie z urzędu i pozbawienie komunii.
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Russian diplomatic representatives in the Afshars’ state

100%
GOZALOVA N. R.
Historia i Świat
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2025
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vol. 14
231–242
EN
The issue of studying the history of diplomatic missions, consulates and embassies is particularly important for the study of international relations in the 18th century. In the absence at that time of a tradition of permanent diplomatic embassies in the Afshars’ state, the exchange of missions and the establishment of consulates, together with and diplomatic correspondence were the main forms of establishing and maintaining intergovernmental contacts. This article describes the Afshar and Russian diplomatic missions and consulates.. The paper relies on official and semi-official historiography, contemporary mainly Russian accounts, and archival dates, as well some secondary sources. Considering this data is of utmost importance, as our previous knowledge was predominantly based on Iranian sources, which are highly biased and frequently present a distorted narrative in their content.
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