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DE
In dem Aufsatz wird die Frage nach der Gewalt im Alten Testament am Beispiel von Gen 34 behandelt. Die Untersuchung zeigt, dass die Erzählung nicht einheitlich ist. Der ursprüngliche Text besteht aus V. 1 4.7a.8.10b.11*(ohne w> h'ybia' la,)-13a.14-15.17-21a.22aa.b-23ba.24(*?, vielleicht ohne Ary[i r[;v; yaec.yO lK' in V.24a).25a.26a ba.29b.26bβ (und vermutlich 35,5bβ). Sie wurde in Rahmen von der J-Komposition um V.30 ergänzt (siehe Gen 49,5-7) und schlieβlich vom Redaktor bearbeitet, der sich an Num 31,7-9; Dtn 7,3; 20,13-14; 2 Sam 13; Esr 9,11f und der deuteronomistischen Kritik der religiösen Hurerei (z.B. Dtn 31,16) orientiert. Die erste Fassung erzählt über die Gewalt der hochgestellten Machthaber (Dina’s Vergewaltigung von Sichem) und Manipulationen, die mit der blutigen Rache der zwei Söhne Jakobs endet. Die Mächtigen, die zur Gewalt greifen, werden zu den Opfern der Gewalt (eine Art von gerechter Vergeltung). Der Jahvist kritisieret diese Rache heftig, weil solche Gewalt nur zur schlimmeren Gewalt führen kann. Der Redaktor, der die Erzählung nach deuteronomistischen und chronistischen Geboten deutet, warnt vor dem Mischen mit den fremden Völkern, die Israel zum Götzendienst verführen. Am Beispiel aus der weit entfernten Vergangenheit, in dem die Gewalt gegen die Feinde und ihre Tötung leider positiv bewertet wurde, will er um die Gottestreue werben. Weil die Erzählung die Gewalt aus den verschiedenen Sichten betrachtet, kann sie nicht als die Befürwortung der Gewalt gelesen werden aber als die Warnung vor der Gewalt.
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EN
The images of the divine Sun in ancient cultures are the context of Old Testament expressions concerning the sun. The translator of the Hebrew text into Greek must have also been influenced by the culture that surrounded him. The translator provided his Greek-speaking Jewish contemporaries with a monotheist tuned paraphrase of the Hebrew text in Psalm 18:5c. His idea of the sun as an appropriate allegorical representation of God is based on linguistic and thematic default assumptions of the Hebrew text.
EN
Studies on IMacc 1,3a - a verse interesting on account of its historical context - lead to the conclusion that when remarking on the pride of the Macedonian King the author of the book uses the expression his heart was lifted, up not only as a reference to history, although history does confirm the king’s character. The quoted phrase has a highly theological connotation in the Bible and is used with reference to various characters who meet with an adequate response on the part of the God of Israel. The causes of human pride discussed in the article - success in life, riches and military victory - are by no means the only ones responsible for the increasing self-satisfaction felt by the characters. However, it seems that it is those causes of pride that most often threaten punishment to the willful.
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Studia Ełckie
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2016
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vol. 18
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issue 1
67- 76
EN
In Jewish folklore, from ,,Alphabet of Ben Sira” onwards, Lilith becomes Adamʼs first wife, who was created at the same time as Adam. The idea in the text that Adam had a wife prior to Eve may have developed from an interpreta-tion of the Book of Genesis and its dual creation accounts, while Genesis 2:22 describes God's creation of Eve from Adamʼs rib, an earlier passage, 1:27, al-ready indicates that a woman had been made. Whereas there are five references to Lilith in the Babylonian Talmud. According to Talmud Adam lived a hun-dred and thirty years and begot a son in own likeness, after his own image, from which it follows that until that time he did not beget after his own image. The only occurrence is in the Book of Isaiah 34, 14, describing the desola-tion of Edom, where the Hebrew word tyliyLi appears in a list of eight unclean animals, some of which may have demonic associations. Since the word tyliyLi is a hapax legomenon in the Hebrew Bible. As it seems that Lilith was a demon of the night which would coincide with the possible references to the ,,lilītu” in Babylonian demonology. However, this view is challenged by some modern research such as by J.M. Blair who considers that the context indicates animals.
EN
The article deals with the problem of formation of the canon of the Hebrew Bible on the level of correlation between the cultic institutions that formed the basis of ancient Near Eastern religions and the theological concepts inscribed into the text of the Hebrew Bible. The proposed approach is an attempt tofind a new paradigm in the discussion on the uniqueness of the religion of ancient Israel. Recognition of theological concepts inscribed into sacred writings that finally substitute some of the functions of cultic institutions might provide an explanation of the peculiarities of the contents and form of the canon, both on the level of the whole scripture as well as particular stories. This article is part of a wider project whose aim is to describe the connection between the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and the religion of Israel in biblical times. The idea of the project embraces multiple directions of research: the problem of formation and transmitting of the texts of the canons; the reasons why the stories, as well as the Bible as one whole, were written and transmitted in this particular content and form; the rules of writing the text and transmitting it in the written version; multiplicity of canons and their connections with the communities; the specifics of the Hebrew canon against the Old Testament canon; the issue of continuity between the religion of ancient Israel, Judaism of the Second Temple period, Christianity and rabbinic Judaism. The proposed approach underscores the fact that a canon does not exist without a community which is responsible for its creation and cultivation, therefore, it cannot be interpreted apart from it. On the other hand, it is the canon that protects the identity of the community, therefore, its hermeneutics must comply with the community’s self understanding.
Studia Ełckie
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2018
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vol. 20
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issue 3
367-388
EN
“Sons of God” is the term applied in the Old Testament to supernatural beings both good and evil. However the general view is that the “sons of God” were the pious descendants of Seth and the daughters of men, the Cainitish offspring. In this article there are strong arguments against it. First of all, the term „sons of God” is never applied in the Old Testament to believers. Secondly, is no proof in the text that the daughters of men were only descendants of the Cainites. Thirdly, if the „sons of God” were simply pious Sethites, it is hard to understand why the offspring should be a special race. Besides, the giants were Nephilim, which means „the fallen ones”. That is why the term „sons of God” must mean supernatural evil beings. These angels married women of the human race (either Cainites or Sethites) and the resulting offspring were the Nephilim. The Nephilim were giants with physical superiority and therefore established themselves as men of renowned for their physical prowess and military might. This race of half human creatures was wiped out by the flood New Testament (Jud 5-6; 2 Pet 2,4 i 1 Pet 3,18-20) hint on Gen 6,1-4. This Scriptures declares that the fallen angels are angels, which sinned and God did not spare them. The fallen angels left their own habitation and mixed with the daughters of men.
Verbum Vitae
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2022
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vol. 40
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issue 4
1075-1096
EN
Since 1970, the Catholic Church has not used the so-called imprecatory Psalms and verses in the Liturgy of the Hours (in total, 122 verses have been removed). This article aims to analyze the presence of controversial fragments of the Psalms in the liturgy. It consists of four parts. First, it presents the history of the process that began during the Second Vatican Council and led to the decision to remove such fragments from the liturgy. What follows, is an overview of the reception and opinions on the imprecatory Psalms over the past fifty years. The next part of this study collects arguments in favor of removing the questionable texts from the liturgy as well as an argument in favor of keeping them in it. The article concludes with an appendix of all the texts from the Book of Psalms that have been removed from the Liturgy of the Hours. The author is personally in favor of leaving the unwanted verses in the liturgy.
The Biblical Annals
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2023
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vol. 13
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issue 2
297-317
EN
In the discussed verse 1 Macc 3:21, there are two main motivations for the struggle of Judah Maccabee and his compatriots against the Seleucid army of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The text combines the struggle for the physical existence of Jews with the defence of native customs established on the foundations of the Mosaic Law. There is a clear indissolubility of life and faith in the Jewish consciousness. One cannot survive without one’s own religious tradition, which is the basis of national identity. This article aims to explore the meaning of the Greek adjective νόμιμος, -η, -ον, appearing in the analysed verse of the the book, as substantive (τὸ) νόμιμον, "custom" especially in the plural τὰ νόμιμα, "customs, usages, norms". This term will be presented from a theological and historical perspective in search of an answer to the question about its content and implied meaning in the speech of Judah to his countrymen before the beginning of the battle of Beth-Choron. This content will be both the justification of the struggle undertaken and its importance in the history of Israel in the middle of the 2nd century BC.
EN
The Hebrew word “dabar” is translated in the King James Bible by no fewer than 82 different English words. This article explores how and why it is translated like this, considering some of the issues at stake in Bible translation more generally, and with the King James Bible, in particular. It examines more closely six ways in which translation decisions either affect interpretation or reveal the translation process. It draws out implications for translators, readers, and for evaluating the KJB.
EN
In the genealogy of Jesus at the beginning of the Gospel according to St. Matthew four women are listed. Two of them - Rahab and Ruth - connect the public profession of faith in God YHWH and the corresponding conduct. This article approaches the story of these women described in the Bible and against that background shows the value of that confession of faith, together with its importance and consequences for the future life of both heroins. Rahab and Ruth - two non-Israelites who profess faith in YHWH, and take action dictated by this faith became collaborators with God in the execution of His program of blessing of the peoples of the Earth. They were also accepted into the religious and national community of Israel. For the first recipients of the written story of the two women, that is for the members of the postexilic community of the province of Yehud, the story of Rehab and Ruth could provide a valuable lesson on the collective identity of the people of YHWH.
EN
Even though the anicient Israel was a nation which all areas of life were adjusted by religion, that marriage was not connected with no cult institution. Even so, in the feeling of each Israelite, it had saint character. It resulted from the God created first humans as a man and woman as equal each other and meant to common and social life. They were differed for the sake of their gender. That gender difference was simultaneously a task for spouses. They should have known each other not only sexually and physically, but also emotionally and personally. It that way it came into existence the community which was indissoluble. This conviction follows from utterance of the Old Testament. Exceeding these rules violated the sanctity of mariage as a social institution and acted deep cranny not only in the mariage but in all national community. The elementary aim of Israeli marriage was having offspring and then sons had more privileges than daughters. Marriage in Israel could be dissolved when the man gave his wife so called note of divorce.
EN
The Old Testament prohibition of consuming blood (Lev. 17:10–14) was dictated by the observation of the phenomenon of blood loss as a cause of death of a human being. Therefore, blood was considered to have life-giving power, the power of God Himself. Blood flowing in the veins of every creature was considered to be God’s property and was not allowed to be consumed, but it had to be poured out on the ground. In New Testament times, this prohibition was relativized, recommending only its preservation (Acts 15:28–29). Since there are also religious groups today that demand that we refrain from the consumption of blood, we decided to study the issue based on the texts of the Old and New Testament, which contain information about blood and its symbolism, as well as the prohibition of its consumption. The methods of contextual analysis and historical-critical analysis were applied. As a result of these studies, it turned out that blood, especially in the Old Testament texts, has very extensive symbolism, which is why one can speak of the firstborn’s blood, substitute blood, blood of the Covenant. Blood also played a special role in the worship of Israel, especially in sacrificial offerings. This meaning is also found in the New Testament: “without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins” (Heb. 9:22). In the Old Testament, there are a number of texts in which the prohibition of consumption of blood has been imposed (see Gen. 9:4; Lev. 3:17; 7:26–27; Deut. 12:23), although refraining from eating meat in which blood would still be found is not always explicitlly mentioned. The most comprehensive information on this subject, along with the justification of the prohibition, is included in Leviticus 17:10–14. Such prohibitions resulted in a specific lifestyle, and even slaughtering of animals, which was the subject of a large-scale social discussion. We ask ourselves the question: Does this prohibition apply to today’s Hebrews, Christians, or other social groups for whom the Bible is a peculiar norm of conduct? While the positive answer undoubtedly concerns the followers of Judaism, the issue of Christians is not so obvious. This is indicated by the so-called Jerusalem Council: “you abstain from what has been sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from what has been strangled, and from sexual immorality. If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well. Farewell” (Acts 15:28–29). Three facts are of crucial importance here. First, these clauses were disciplinary and not doctrinal. Second, they had limited territorial coverage (see Acts 15:23). Third, one sentence is of particular significance in this context: “If you keep yourselves from these, you will do well” (Acts 15:29), which indicates this was not a warrant for salvation, but a recommendation to facilitate the faithful’s life in mutual consent in a church made up of Christians of Jewish and pagan origin.
PL
The typological reading and application of Hebrew texts deserve the greatest attention among the numerous ways of reading and applying the Old Covenant ideas, traditions and texts. Through the typological reading and application of the text, the text is given broad latitude for its typological application. Treating the Bible from the typological point of view is not only restricted to quoting the books of the Old Testament. Instead, numerous allusions and references to events, characters, places and descriptions are made. The interpretation of these analogies leads to the understanding of the whole truth of the Old and New Testament. “Christians therefore read the Old Testament in the light of Christ who died and rose from the dead. Such typological reading reveals an inexhaustible part of the Old Testament” (CCC 129). Therefore typological thinking is necessary in order to interpret the Bible messages appropriately.
EN
During the interrogation of Jesus before the tribunal of Pilate a question is posed: “What is truth?” (Gospel of John). The author makes it a canvas of the article and on this basis in the first part he wants to present similarities and differences in perception of truth in Jewish and Greco-Roman tradition. He starts from the meaning of the Hebrew term ’emet and analyses its use in the Old Testamental environment as well as in the intertestamental period (Qumran, Philo of Alexandria). The term ’emet is much more capacious than its Polish equivalent and it means the truth as well as faithfulness, reliability, stability. In the OT writings it plays an important role in relation to God and His word as well as God’s deeds (eg. the Law, the Covenant), and together with the word hesed it constitutes a characteristic hendiadys. The Jews, however, knew also use of the term ’emet similar to the contemporary (compliance of a spoken judgment with reality; in this way it was used in everyday speech and the judiciary). In later texts it appears in the sense of knowledge hidden from the profanes, having its source in heaven and passed by messengers-angels to sages and prophets. Those in turn were to instruct worthy people, who in this way are acquainted with God’s plans. In the Greek culture, at least from the times of Parmenides, the truth (alētheia) was identified with being. Some philosophers identified pre-being with Deity (Xenophanes) or the Rule/Rules of the world (archē/archai). This concept was professed, among others, by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, although each one of them within specifically conceived metaphysics. The objective nature of truth was negated by sophists, followed by agnostics. In other philosophical schools alētheia was conceived in close relation to ethics. However, depending on the schools and even on the period of their development, certain changes occurred, as in the case of intermediate and younger Academy (moderate skepticism and probabilism). In Rome, where the stoic mainstream and eclecticism (Cicero) dominated, awareness of the variety of definitions of truth led to the attitude of keeping distance to any certainties. Philosophising Romans, especially the skeptics and eclectics, referred to the principle of probability and common sense.
EN
The aim of the paper is to present the results of analysis of the biblical quotations and borrowings found in the Palaea Historica (9th century) in its second Slavic translation, according mostly to the classification of biblical quotations given by M. Garzaniti (2014). Having its narrative material based on the Octateuch as well as the Books of Samuel, Books of Kings and Books of Chronicles, the Palaea contains a variety of adaptations of the biblical text, which provide evidence for the creative usage of the hypertext (through inter al. summary, contamination of episodes, expansion of details, dramaturgization). Literal quotations from the Old and New Testaments also form an important group of such borrowings. Curiously, a part of these play no narrative role, but rather a structural one, as they summarize the meanings of particular chapters (stories).
RU
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EN
The article explores biblical sources of ethics principles of business. It demonstrates that in the contemporary pluralistic world, principles of biblical business ethics can be valuable in the communication and interaction among representatives of different countries and cultures, as they encompass fundamental foundations for building business relationships. Due to the influence of Christian morality on the culture of many nations, biblical values have the potential to significantly impact individuals and their economic behavior, contributing to the dissemination of important economic categories in society. The study reveals that important anthropological foundations for fruitful economic relations have been formed within the framework of biblical theocentrism, including considerations of human dignity, honesty, diligence, responsibility, and charity. The biblical perspective on property as a temporary stewardship has significant implications for awareness and education about responsibility not only towards other people but also towards the environment, holding crucial relevance in the context of corporate social responsibility in the modern world.
EN
The goal of the article was to unveil the mystery of Mercy as revealed in the inspired books of the Old Testament. Bearing in mind that all of Scripture is The Book of Divine Mercy, only selected texts have been presented to discuss various dimensions of this Merciful Love of God. The Holy Books show God as Creator and Savior showing mercy to the world and mankind for each individual human being. The Merciful God, as presented in the article, reveals His attribute in the very first pages of Scripture, while this fundamental truth about Him is developed more fully in the subsequent books.
EN
The conducted exegesis of some particular verses from the Septuagint indicates that two initial covenants made between a representative of the chosen nation with a Gentile party (Abraham and Solomon) did not breach the obligations resulting from the Law of Moses. The theological portrait of Abraham in the Book of Genesis captures an unambiguous evaluation of his conduct in accordance with the Law although the Law itself appeared considerably later when Moses lived. The pact between Solomon and Hiram deserves a similar evaluation. However, the later covenants between the kings of Israel and Judah with Gentile rulers deserve an extremely negative evaluation. Although they did not formally violate the Mosaic prohibitions, they were evaluated as a violation of trust in the Lord as He was the only Partner of the covenant between Himself and the Israelites. Such an interpretation is possible especially in light of Deut 7:6 which accentuates the uniqueness of Israel as a nation chosen by God from among other nations. And because this selection of Israel was done on the foundation of the covenant made on the Mount Sinai, it should be a one-of-a-kind covenant that should not be replaced with another pact signed with a human being, and let alone a Gentile. In all of the cases above, starting from King Asa and ending with Archpriest Jonathan, there was a true violation of the rule whereby the Lord was the only Partner of the covenant with His people. Thus, each of the analyzed treatises met with valid criticism both from a prophet and the inspired author. It is difficult to treat these violations as a major breach of the faith of Israel because of the established diplomatic relations. However, it was the rule of God’s uniqueness as a foundation for any sphere in the life of the chosen people that was violated. It included the political sphere which should not be excluded from the chosen people’s faith.  
EN
The elegy in question presents and expresses in a poetic way the depth of feelings of a grieving man who suffers from the loss of his closest friends. The elegy belongs to the most illustrious achievements of early Hebrew lyric poetry and though it does not include distinct religious references in itself, it has to be understood within the context of the entire theology of the Old Testament that places God in the very centre of the life of the rulers of Israel and its people. The defeat in the battle so lamented in the Book by David himself is shown not as accidental or as a normal flow of things, but as part of God’s plan that, ultimately and paradoxically, helps the future king of Israel conquer his enemies and ascend to the throne. A characteristic feature of the lamentation is an exclusively favourable presentation of the main protagonists so that due honour, reverence and glory can be rendered to them. Therefore, the only way to treat the song is to consider it as one that expresses grief and mourning over the deceased, and not as a historically reliable review of their life. The way the lives of heroes is presented makes it possible to draw conclusions for the audience that may be important and may shape individual lives and their future progress. Undoubtedly, this is how David viewed his song to be delivered to the audience, as well: his access to rule the country was partly the result of the sacrifice paid by the two heroes slain in the battle.
EN
The article aims to demonstrate the naturalistic tendencies of Erich Fromm’s research that are apparent in his interpretations of the fragments of the Old Testament relating to the Sabbath and describing the fall of Adam and Eve. Erich Fromm finds a natural ally for his naturalistic tendencies in Zen Buddhism. In Fromm’s thought both naturalism and Zen Buddhism interpreted naturalistically join with Jacob Bachofen’s theory of matriarchate.
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