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PL
Panama zajmuje wyjątkowe miejsce w zglobalizowanej gospodarce światowej. Dzięki korzystnemu położeniu geograficznemu i Kanałowi Panamskiemu kraj ten stał się ważną siłą napędową globalizacji. W kilku ostatnich dekadach doszły dwa dodatkowe czynniki stymulujące globalizację: zlokalizowane w stolicy Panamy centrum finansowe i druga pod względem wielkości obrotów na świecie strefa wolnocłowa w Colon. Do postępu globalizacji na świecie Panama przyczynia się także jako kraj taniej bariery. Przedmiotem rozważań w niniejszym artykule są najważniejsze elementy gospodarki Panamy, które jednocześnie są filarami globalizacji. Na gospodarkę i społeczeństwo panamskie spojrzano także jako na beneficjentów postępujących na świecie procesów globalizacyjnych.
EN
Panama occupies a unique place in the globalized world economy. Due to its favorable geographical position and the Panama Canal, this country has become an important driving force of globalization. In the past few decades, two additional factors contributing to globalization have arisen: the emergence of the financial center in the capital of Panama and the development of the Colon free trade zone. Moreover, Panama contributes to the progress of globalization as a country of a flag of convenience. In this article, the Authors focus on the most important elements of the Panama’s economy, which are also the pillars of globalization. At the same time, the Panamanian economy and society are perceived as beneficiaries of the globalization processes.
EN
Lifestyle migration, the flow of relatively affluent people from developed to developing countries, is characterized by the search for ‘lifestyle’ destinations with warm climates, reduced costs of living, and perceived higher quality of life. Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama are three current major lifestyle migration destinations in Latin America. In this article I explore the emergence of this relatively new phenomenon in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago in Northwestern Panama by discussing the contradiction between lifestyle migrants’ idealized perception of place and local realities. I also introduce the implications of these contradicting versions of reality, and how they play out at the local level. Results show that, in general, foreign residents are attracted to Bocas del Toro as a physical manifestation of globally produced images and perceptions of tropical island living. However, an in-depth exploration reveals contradictions between expectations and reality. I suggest that foreigners exhibit a set of attitudes and behaviors towards their new home that are defined by a shared cultural and economic background that, on the ground, contribute to the creation of emerging markets, land conflicts, and changes in environmental practices. The ensuing narrative is contingent upon tensions between and within social, political, and ecological variables at the global and local levels.
EN
General Omar Torrijos Herrera came to power roughly six months after the 1968 Panamanian coup d'état. He remained in office for 12 years until his death in 1981. Torrijos played a major role in achieving the greatest success in Panama’s foreign policy since its independence in 1903 - the negotiation, signature (1977) and entry into force (1979) of the Panama Canal Treaty and the Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal (called the Torrijos-Carter Treaties). From the moment the Panama Canal Treaty entered into force all previous agreements, including those from 1903, 1936 and 1955, were rendered void. The Canal Treaty expired on December 31st 1999 but the Neutrality Treaty remains valid for an unspecified period of time and regulates the modern international legal status of the Panama Canal. Under those two treaties Panama regained its sovereign, formal as well as effective, authority over the whole of its territory, including the old Canal Zone, the Panama Canal and neighboring military installations. Panama took over responsibility for the maintenance and functioning of the Canal and it extends access to it based on the principle of freedom of maritime navigation. The treaty negotiation period lasted for several years and was conducted in difficult conditions. Panamanian diplomacy managed to acquire sizeable support for its efforts in the international community, including the UN and OAS. The US administration at the time – the Carter administration – was inclined to negotiate a mutually satisfactory treaty and to regulate its complicated relations with Panama. From a historical perspective it must be stressed that the Torrijos-Carter treaties should be considered as Panama’s biggest diplomatic success, with crucial consequences for its economy and sea shipping. After several dozen years from those events, that assessment remains accurate.
PL
Generał Omar Torrijos Herrera doszedł do władzy pół roku po zamachu stanu z 1969 r. Rządził przez około 12 lat, aż do swej śmierci w 1981 r. W znacznym stopniu przyczynił się do osiągnięcia największego sukcesu w polityce zagranicznej Panamy, od początku powsta-nia tego państwa (1903 r.), jakim było zawarcie (1977 r.) nowych traktatów: o Kanale Panam-skim oraz o trwałej neutralności i funkcjonowaniu Kanału. Z chwilą wejścia w życie Traktatu o Kanale Panamskim utraciły moc wszystkie dotychczasowe umowy, w tym najważniejsze: z 1903 r., 1936 r. i 1955 r. Pierwszy z układów obowiązywał do 31grudnia 1999 r. Drugi został zawarty na czas nieoznaczony i reguluje współczesny status prawnomiędzynarodowy Kanału. Dzięki tym układom Panama odzyskała władanie suwerenne formalne i efektywne nad całym swym terytorium: nad dawną Strefą Kanału, Kanałem Panamskim i instalacjami wojskowymi. Panama przejęła odpowiedzialność za utrzymanie i funkcjonowanie Kanału i udostępniania go na zasadach otwartości dla żeglugi morskiej. Kilkuletni okres negocjacji przebiegał w trudnych warunkach. Dyplomacji panamskiej udało się uzyskać dla swych starań liczące się poparcie społeczności międzynarodowej, w tym ONZ i OPA. Ważną okolicznością była także skłonność administracji Cartera do zawarcia satysfakcjonujących obie strony traktatów i uregulowania trudnych stosunków z Panamą. Z perspektywy czasu należy uznać zawarcie układów Torrijos-Carter za największy sukces dyplomatyczny Panamy, o ważnych skutkach dla gospodarki tego kraju i żeglugi morskiej. Po upływie kilkudziesięciu lat od tamtych wydarzeń, ocena ta pozo-staje w pełni aktualna.
EN
The article reviews the policy of states in relation to national minorities and the processes of granting them territorial autonomy, based on the example of three countries geographically differentiated, with different histories and diverse national structures. Myanmar, Panama and Bolivia were selected for the analysis. In all these states, the Bolshevik practice of separating autonomous areas according to the distribution of individual nations was used, which, as the practice shows, usually leads to the disintegration of states. Also, two of the analyzed countries have already embarked on the path of disintegration.
PL
W artykule dokonano przeglądu polityki państw w stosunku do mniejszości narodowościowych i procesów nadawania im autonomii terytorialnej na przykładzie trzech krajów zróżnicowanych pod względem położenia geograficznego, odmiennych dziejów i zróżnicowanych struktur narodowych. Do analizy wybrano Mjanmę, Panamę i Boliwię. We wszystkich tych państwach zastosowano bolszewicką praktykę wydzielania obszarów autonomicznych zgodnie z rozmieszczeniem poszczególnych narodów, co – jak pokazuje praktyka – prowadzi zazwyczaj do dezintegracji państw. Dwa spośród analizowanych państw weszły już na drogę dezintegracji.
EN
Manuel Noriega shaped the fate of the Panamanians for eight years. After the death of Omar Torrijos, Noriega became the de facto ruler of Panama. He was not the elected leader, notwith-standing his policy affected every citizen. His illicit activities led to social and political unrest in Panama and were the causes for the American intervention in the country in December 1989. The aim of the article is analyse if it was really necessary for the Americans to apply military action in Panama and why, for many years, the USA accepted the activities of Noriega. It is essential to know whether Panama itself could deal with the internal problems and why the people were dissatisfied with the rule of Manuel Noriega. The 1980s in Panama can be treated as a lost decade. The economic measures employed by the United States managed to deteriorate the industry of Panama. The outcome of the invasion is also significant – the loss of lives, homelessness and lootings. The article presents, step by step, what led to the American interven-tion in Panama and how Manuel Noriega deceived both the Panamanians and the American authorities to remain in power.
EN
The announcement of Panama as host of World Youth Day in 2019, turned out to be a great surprise for the whole world. For the fi rst time such a small country, has hosted a global event. Panamá is known primarily from the Panama Canal and the Panamanian aff air called Panama. But speaking in these two contexts is very hurtful, because it is a country richly diverse, and the Church here has a unique, unique face. Catholic missions are included in the history of Panama from the very beginning. From the beginning of the bishopric in the city of Panamá, through the territorial development of the Church, everything here has a mark of mission. The fi nal element of the article is the presentation of the Church in the Bocas del Toro Territorial Prelature. The prelature is located in the Caribbean Sea and is geographically diff erent from the rest of the country. But this place is an example of a missionary church, and of a church that needs support in its mission. Poles coming to Panama for the next World Youth Day will discover a unique country, and together with the Poles, Panama will be discovered by the whole world.
EN
Pleurothallidinae with more than 5000 species are the most diverse and numerous group of orchids. This subtribe occurs exclusively in tropical America, with a range extending from Florida and the Caribbean on the north to the northern parts of Argentina on the south. Pleurothallids are predominantly epiphytes growing above 1000 m a.sl. Taxonomical studies reveal new species each year. Herein we propose 5 new species representing Stelis, Lepanthes and Muscarella.
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