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EN
The motivations of soldiers belonging to the Polish Armed Forces in the West in deciding whether to return to Poland or remain abroad are extremely difficult to study, each soldier being guided by individual premises. However, some factors can be highlighted which played a decisive role for the majority of Polish Armed Forces members. They encompass: family considerations, financial reasons, attachment to Poland and the desire to pursue a military career. Other factors may have been fear of antagonism towards themselves or their families, or a need to maintain the bond with their unit or commander by taking the line of their brothers in arms. Living factors also affected soldiers' decision to repatriate. Problems with finding their feet abroad, finding a job as well as language barriers discouraged soldiers from staying abroad and influenced the number of applicants willing to return to Poland. The activities of immigration and communist authorities could have either encouraged or discouraged the decision to remain or return. Research progress and available data do not allow for the accurate gradation of the above-mentioned factors. However, there are some indications that decisions to return to Poland were primarily of a personal and family nature.
EN
As a result of bilateral agreements, a broadly-shared repatriation operation began during 1944-1946. About one million Borderland people started their journey back to their homeland. On their way home, they faced many problems associated with clerical hostility and malice, human greed, war difficulties, as well as being robbed by demoralized troops and ordinary bandits. I tried to look at the problems faced by repatriates during their journey on the basis of, inter alia, the archives of the General Proxy for Repatriation and the Principal Proxies for the Evacuation. I present the difficulties of days of waiting for a train on the ramps, the pathology of hasty loading and reloading into too few wagons. Above all, however, I focus on the issues of their movement from the Polish Eastern Borderlands to Poland, the difficulties which repatriates faced from railway staff from the initial station in Lithuania or Ukraine, until arrival in the destination cities in Poland.
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GERMAN NATIONALITY UNDER THE NORMATIVE STANDARD

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EN
The article treats about the issue of German citizenship in the context of nationality (i.e. affiliation to the State) of the Federal Republic of Germany, affected by the political consequences of World War II. The main question in this respect is the continuity or discontinuity of German statehood after the collapse of the Third Reich. The problem was further complicated by the political situation - division of the country into two German states and the transfer of one-third of the territory of the former Third Reich to the Polish state. The issue of German nationality has developed in three dimensions: citizenship of the FRG, citizenship of the GDR, and matters related to nationality and citizenship of the German resettlers in 1945-89. These problems are linked to the restoration of German citizenship to former citizens of the Third Reich who were deprived thereof in result of discriminating Nazi legislation, as well as the adoption in the Basic Law (of the Federal Republic of Germany) of the notion of a German, under which some political rights of citizens were granted to ethnic Germans. Apart from some detailed provisions concerning the nature of securing the right to citizenship, including inter alia constitutional prohibition against deprivation thereof, the Basic Law does not govern the issue of German nationality which is regulated by the Act of 1913 on German Nationality (with many further amendments). The legal basis is provided also by a group of legislation concerning the consequences of the war (the Acts of 1955 and 1956 regulating nationality issues), consequences of the division of the country into two German states (the Act of 1967 on Citizenship of the GDR) and also the laws and treaties to naturalise inhabitants of certain areas annexed in 1939-1945, and finally laws and treaties relating to the unification of the two German states in 1990. Particularly complex is the question of citizenship of German resettlers who left Poland in result of Potsdam conference and repatriation process after 1950. German legislation addresses this problem, in a manner that is controversial and provocative from the perspective of Polish-German relations. First of all, it causes the collision of norms (positive and negative), thereby interfering in Poland's ruling powers. Maintenance of this line of solutions until today is met not only with political criticism from Poland, but is also considered by the German doctrine of law as outdated and inconsistent with the 'ratio legis' of the Basic Law.
EN
Expatriation remains the key challenge for managers and HR professionals in organisations undertaking or continuing their international expansion. Despite the appreciation of its importance in the development of international activities, it may be noted that the impact of expatriation on a delegated employee (in the sphere of their professional and private life) is relatively less well recognised. Therefore, the problem of expatriation in this article is analysed through the prism of individual expectations. This point of view reflects the need to better understand the individual’s motivation to undertake international assignment and the reasons for refusal. The purpose of this article, then, is to identify the main motives and expectations of employees associated with initiating and continuing the foreign mission and to define the main factors influencing their willingness to expatriate. The article also highlights the different perceptions of individual motives and divergence of mutual expectations between employees and their organisations.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia zasady i przebieg przesiedleń ludności do Polski od podpisania traktatu brzeskiego w 1918 r. do roku 1924. Omawia zatem całość przesiedleń, od ich zainicjowania przez instytucje Rady Regencyjnej Królestwa Polskiego do oficjalnego zakończenia repatriacji w niepodległej już Polsce. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono repatriacji po traktacie pokojowym w Rydze między Polską i Rosją, ze względu na jej największe rozmiary i znaczenie dla kształtow ania struktury narodowościowej II RP. W artykule zostały wykorzystane istniejące opracowania na ten temat. Przedstawiono również szacunki statystyczne dotyczące wpływu repatriacji na strukturę narodowościową II RP, w tym zwłaszcza na zwiększenie liczebności mniejszości narodowych w ówczesnych województwach północno-wschodnich, do których napłynęła zdecydowana większość repatriantów i reemigrantów. Główną tezą artykułu jest założenie, że repatriacja do Polski została przeprowadzona na odmiennych zasadach niż dokonujące się równolegle i w następnych dekadach przesiedlenia ludności likwidujące skutki konfliktów zbrojnych i wytyczania nowych granic w Europie. Została bowiem oparta nie na kryterium więzi narodowej, lecz na związku z zamieszkiwanym wcześniej terytorium. W efekcie jako jedyne masowe przesiedlenie ludności aż do lat 90. XX w. była repatriacją wieloetniczną, w której większość przesiedlonych była innej narodowości niż naród tytularny w państwie przyjmującym.
EN
The article presents the principles and course of resettlement in Poland in the period from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 until 1924. Therefore, it discusses the entirety of resettlement, since its initiation by the institutions of the Kingdom of Poland to the official end of the repatriation in independent Poland. Particular attention has been dedicated to the repatriation after the peace treaty in Riga between Poland and Russia, due to its largest size and importance in shaping the ethnic structure of the Polish Second Republic. The article uses existing studies on this subject. It also presents statistical estimates on the impact of the repatriation on the ethnic structure of Poland, in particular on the increase of the number of minorities in the north-eastern provinces which together accounted for the vast majority of returnees and immigrants from Soviet Russia. The main thesis of the article is the assumption that the repatriation to Poland was carried out on different principles than those which took place parallelly and in the next decades, eliminating the effects of armed conflicts and the demarcation of new borders in Europe. The discussed repatriation process was based not on the criterion of nationality, but on the connection with previously inhabited territories. As a result, up to the 1990s post-World War I repatriation to Poland was the only multinational mass repatriation in which the majority of the resettled people were of other nationalities than the nominal nation in the receiving state.
PL
Artykuł dotyczy sytuacji dzieci repatriantów z Kazachstanu w polskiej przestrzeni edukacyjnej. Zawężony w ramach obszaru badawczego do szkoły obowiązkowej, proces odnajdywania się w polskiej szkole i poczucie tożsamości zależne są od wielu czynników. Pierwszoplanową rolę odgrywają wśród nich uwarunkowania rodzinne dzieci, jak i osobiste nastawienie każdego z nich do decyzji o repatriacji, która podjęta była przez rodziców. Sytuacja szkolna dzieci repatriantów odróżnia je od dzieci urodzonych i wychowanych w Polsce, które to biegle posługują się językiem polskim. Prezentowane wyniki wskazują, że kapitał kulturowy (w ujęciu Bourdieu) i tzw. kapitał szkolny (w kontekście kultury szkolnej), którym dysponowały dzieci-repatrianci – okazał się zupełnie nieprzydatny w polskich warunkach. Wyjaśnienia poszukiwano w odniesieniu do różnic między środowiskami szkolnymi poszczególnych instytucji edukacyjnych, w Polsce czy w Kazachstanie. Różnice wynikają też z odmiennego odniesienia kulturowego oraz przede wszystkim z funkcjonowania samej szkoły jako instytucji oświatowej. Dzieci repatriantów doświadczały nie tylko nagłego zderzenia dwóch różnych światów społeczno-kulturowych, lecz także swoistego szoku kulturowego, dodatkowo sprzężonego z jednostkowymi cechami charakteru.
EN
The article discusses the situation of children-repatriates from Kazakhstan in the Polish educational space. Focusing on the research area of compulsory schooling, the process of identity-construction and children’s place in Polish school depend on many factors. Of primary importance are the family context and a personal attitude of each child towards the decision about repatriation – which was usually made by their parents. Unlike majority children who are fluent in the Polish language, repatriated children find themselves in a different educational situation. The research results demonstrate that both cultural capital (Bourdieu) and the so-called school capital, that are at the disposal of the repatriated children, have proven useless in Poland. Explanations have been drawn in connection to the differences between schooling environments of different educational institutions, in Poland and in Kazakhstan, These differences stem from a varied cultural reference and, most importantly, from how a school functions as an educational institution. Children-repatriates experienced not only a sudden clash of two different socio-cultural worlds but also a culture shock. These were, in turn, interconnected with their personal traits.
PL
Artykuł ukazuje funkcjonującą w przestrzeni społecznej konfrontację dwóch imigranckich grup – repatriantów i uchodźców, które wraz z kryzysem uchodźczym w Europie oraz polityzacją problemów dotyczących zarówno jednej jak i drugiej grupy, ulegają społecznej polaryzacji. Do analizy zjawiska wykorzystywane są dwie antropologiczne kategorie: opozycyjna – Swoich i Obcych, oraz „jednocząca” – wspólnoty. Druga z nich traktowana jest jako objawiająca się na dwóch płaszczyznach – opartej na przynależności narodowej oraz opartej na dzieleniu wspólnego losu. Proces przypisywania obydwu grupom cech swojskości bądź obcości, włączania do wspólnoty bądź wykluczania z niej, ulega relatywizacji pod wpływem bieżących wydarzeń światowych i ich społecznego odbioru współkształtowanego w niemałym stopniu przez dyskurs oficjalny. Główną tezą wynikającą z analizy przedstawionej sytuacji jest, iż próby powoływania się na wspólnotę losu wszystkich migrantów dokonywane przez środowiska pro- imigranckie i pro-uchodźcze, w obliczu strachu wywołanego kryzysem związanym z napływem uchodźców, zderzają się w nierównej walce ze wspólnotą tożsamości mającą niejako pierwszeństwo w sytuacji zagrożenia. W tekście wykorzystuję wyniki dwuletnich badań prowadzonych w środowisku repatriantów oraz spostrzeżenia jako uczestnika i obserwatora debaty publicznej na temat uchodźców w Polsce.
EN
The article shows the confrontation of two immigrant groups – repatriates and refugees – operating in the social space. This confrontation, together with the refugee crisis in Europe and the politicization of problems affecting both groups, becomes subject to social polarization. Two anthropological categories are used for the analysis of the phenomenon: the opposition of Us and Them (Swoi and Obcy), and the “unifying” notion of community. The second is treated as being manifested on two levels – on nationality and on sharing a common fate. The process of assigning the characteristics of homeliness or strangeness to both groups, of joining or excluding from the community, is relativized under the influence of current world events and their social reception has been coshaped to a large extent by the official discourse. The main thesis resulting from the analysis of the presented situation is that attempts to invoke the community of the fate of all migrants made by pro-immigrant and pro-refugee activists, in the face of fear caused by the crisis related to the influx of refugees, collide in an unequal struggle with the identity-community as a priority in an emergency situation. In the text, I use the results of two-year research conducted in the repatriate community and impressions as a participant and observer of the public debate on refugees in Poland.
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