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EN
The offer of the deputies of the patriarch of Constantinople in the orthodoxies synods in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is very important. The ecumenical patriarchs sent or appoint to the Kingdom of Poland in the 16th century yours messengers: Abrahamios, hieromonk Philipos, archbishop of Galata, bishop of Litea and Rendina Damascen, archimandrite Dionisios Rallis Palaiologos, archdeacon Nikiforos Parashis, patriarch’s translator Theodor, patriarch of Antioch Joachim V, archbishop of Domenik and Elasson Arsenios, metropolitan of Dyrrachium Paisios, bishop of Moglen Theofanes, bishop of Luck Cyril Terlecki, metropolitan of Kiev Michal, archbishop of Cyprus Laurentios, archimandrite Cyrillos Lucaris, prince Constantine Ostrogsky, bishop of Lvov Gedeon, archdeacon Cyprian, hieromonk Sofronios, hierodeacon Isaac, monk Ivan Vishensky. The patriarch of Constantinople Jeremiah II appointed a new metropolitan, took care function of the local Synod. The metropolitan Elassonos Arsenios worked as teacher in Lvov and published Grammar of the Greek language. The Church Union was officially declared at the Synod of Brest (1596) and the Polish authorities resorted to violent means in order to apply it hit against the Orthodoxy was the pass of all the bishops of the Orthodox Church in Poland excluding both of them into the union. Protagonist in the faith against the union was the patriarch of Alexandria Meletios Pigas and of course locally through a bitter correspondence. Nikiforos Parashis and Cyrillos Lucaris achieved to organize the antyunion Synod of Brest (1596) which condemned the bishops in union. After the Synod of Brest (1596) in different ways the patriarch’s exarches together with the Orthodox brotherhoods took over the role in saving the Orthodoxy. Through their participations in the Polish fight the patriarch’s exarches couldn’t erase the image of the union, but without doubt created and supported the strength for fight against the union keeping unquenched the flame of the Orthodoxy especially in the metropolis of Kiev.
EN
The Latvian State Historical Archives holds many sources to the lands of the Nobles’ Republic. To make the general characteristics of them author placed in the first table the most important fonds related this matter. Chief among them is Rigas Ārējais arhīvs (F. 673). This fond is composed of 4,058 items (from 1220 to 1869) that are parts of the four sections. For the Polish lands the most important is the section no. 1 that in chronological order includes items to 1621. The signatures of this section are described in details in the second table of the article. Creation of Rigas magistrate Ārējais arhīvs (F. 673) is associated with the operation of the medieval, municipal, external archive. In the office of the city council were kept registry records, correspondence, records and copies of important documents stored in the internal archive. These items were separated and from the second half of 18th century were called "Ausseres Ratsarchiv”. 1882 the fond was placed in the Municipal Archives of the History of Riga (Rigas pilsētas Vesturiskais arhivs). 1962 these collections were transferred to the Central State Historical Archives of the Latvian SSR, which was a follow-up of created in 1919 the State Archives of Latvia (now, since 1991 Latvijas Valsts Vēstures Arhīvs - LVVA). 1964 it was decided to put the collections of the former city council of Riga at the branch of LVVA. This action was intended to preserve records of the former magistrate of Riga in a separate building, situated in the old town. There were documents of both so-called. Internal archive (LVVA, F. 8) and external (LVVA, F. 673).
EN
he article presents the problem of the confirmation of treatises between Commonwealth and elector Frederic William of Brandenburg concluded in 1657 during the negotiations in Oliva monastery in 1660 concerning that peace of the war which was waged in northern Europe from 1655. The Brandenburg tried to include these both sides treatises in conclusions of the peace of Oliva to reach guarantees of general peace what could bring to elector the recognition of his release from the Fief in Duchy of Prussia and confirmation of his political independence in this territory. The Swedes didn’t want to agree with this conception because they levelled charges for all the treatises concluded during the war that have been made, in their mind, against them. The confirmation of Prussian case was dealt at the background of other important for Brandenburg questions as for example the delivering the city of Elbing admitted already to the Elector by Commonwealth in treaty of Bromberg in 1657, which the Swedish did not want realize for the same reason as connected with hostile them treatises. At the end after a longer and hard negotiations in Peace of Oliva however was not concluded the special confirmation of release the elector from Fief in Duchy of Prussia and acknowledgment of his independence there but in Peace of Oliva was made a general confirmation all the treatises and agreements concluded during just the finished war what signified also the treatises between the Commonwealth and the Elector of Brandenburg from 1657.
EN
The article gives an account of the turbulent history of the Polish news magazine Uważam Rze and provides a diagnosis of the successes and the failures of the weekly. Starting with an overview of the situation in the market of weekly opinion magazines in Poland and an account of the circumstances surrounding the founding of the magazine by a group of so-called “rebellious” journalists, the article then explores changes in the Presspublica company and the influence they had on the format and profitability of Uważam Rze. The research is based on archive issues of Uważam Rze and on information related to events surrounding the magazine. Statements by the founders of the weekly and their views, the opinions of media experts, and an analysis of circulation numbers show why Uważam Rze became so successful and how its potential was lost. The results of this analysis show that the reader–columnist relation represents far more than the mere habit of reading a particular magazine – in place of Uważam Rze, two new weeklies emerged (Do Rzeczy and wSieci) and they immediately took over part of the magazine’s readership. On the other hand, the complicated relations between the publisher and the editor-in-chief illustrate how important the financial independence of a magazine may be when it comes to a press free from any outside pressures.
PL
CEL NAUKOWY: Celem artykułu jest zaprezentowanie tradycji rodzinnych pisania instrukcji dla dzieci wysyłanych do szkół poza miejsce zamieszkania lub w podróże edukacyjne.PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Przeprowadzone badania miały na celu znalezienie odpowiedzi na pytanie, jakie typy wskazówek były udzielane w instrukcjach wychowawczych, co miały one na celu i kto je redagował. Analizie poddano wybrane instrukcje powstałe w takich rodzinach, jak np. Radziwiłłowie, Sobiescy, Lubomirscy, Jabłonowscy czy Rzewuscy.PROCES WYWODU: Edukacja w epoce nowożytnej wiązała się najczęściej z koniecznością opuszczenia rodzinnego domu, w związku z tym rodzice wyposażali swe dzieci we wskazówki, mające ukierunkować i uporządkować ich pobyt w obcym miejscu i środowisku. Najczęściej były to ustne wytyczne, rady, zakazy i nakazy. Niekiedy wskazówki zamieszczano w testamentach, udzielano ich w listach, wreszcie spisywano w formie odrębnych zaleceń kierowanych do młodych ludzi lub ich opiekunów. Wyróżnić można dwa rodzaje takich wskazówek. Pierwszy rodzaj to wskazówki wychowawcze natury moralno-obyczajowej, czasami społeczno-politycznej. Drugi rodzaj to instrukcje podróżne.WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Zachowane instrukcje wskazują, że rodzice podchodzili do wychowania z odpowiedzialnością, zdając sobie sprawę z jednej strony ze znaczenia podróży edukacyjnych w kształtowaniu młodego człowieka, z drugiej natomiast z niebezpieczeństw, jakie niosło oddalenie od rodzinnego domu i pozbawienie rodzicielskiej opieki. Instrukcje były najczęściej pisane przez ojców, rzadziej przez matki. W spisywaniu wskazówek edukacyjnych ważną rolę odgrywała rodzinna tradycja wysyłania dzieci, głównie synów, do szkół krajowych i zagranicznych, a także w podróże edukacyjne. Zwyczaj pisania instrukcji nie był wyłączną domeną Polski. Rodzinne tradycje spisywania instrukcji zaobserwować można m.in. u naszych najbliższych sąsiadów, na ziemiach czeskich i austriackich.WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Instrukcja jako popularny gatunek piśmiennictwa pedagogicznego w XVII i XVIII w., mając charakter praktyczny, stanowiła ważne narzędzie wychowawcze w dyspozycji rodziców stanu szlacheckiego.
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The Jagiellonian Idea and the Project for the Future

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EN
The Polish community suffers from weakening national bonds and therefore it has difficulties with defining its identity. Grandiose declarations are an embarrassing confirmation of this fact. No great idea capable of raising a future project for Poland is apparent. Is the Jagiellonian Idea capable of strengthening bonds, perhaps of giving impulse to a metamorphosis? Can it offer a project for tomorrow? Only what will be accepted by collective recognition as a project designed to ensure the existence of the national community has future. And by ‘existence’ I mean not only a verbalized identity, but also the capacity to carry out necessary changes independently. The article presents the view that the Jagiellonian Idea does not rest on facts, but on an imagined picture of the one-time Rzeczpospolita. It presents a thesis about the connection between the flourishing of that state and the acceleration of transformations tied to the dialogic vortex generated by the Baltic-Black Sea axis of concentration. The failure of that project is ascribed to the changed circumstances, and perhaps to the insufficient energy elicited by this dialogic vortex. The experience of the Rzeczpospolita as a European project, in turn, indicates the road we may take today toward the completion of the transformation begun in 1989.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia historię rozwoju ogrodów nieformalnych w Polsce. Najwcześniejsze założenia tego typu powstały w 3. tercji XVIII w. Tę pierwszą fazę zakładania ogrodów swobodnych odnotowali licznie przybywający wówczas do nas publicyści, podróżnicy, dyplomaci, naukowcy, którzy pozostawili po sobie bezcenne źródłowo „opisy podróży”. Ich osąd bywał nieraz boleśnie szczery. Wielu właścicielom tych ogrodów zarzucano bowiem chęć błyszczenia i popisu, często nieudolne i niesmaczne naśladowanie wzorców obcych, a bardzo rzadko szczere zamiłowanie. Tego ostatniego nie sposób odmówić zasłużonym polskim ogrodnikom-dyletantom: Izabeli Czartoryskiej, Aleksandrze Lubomirskiej, Aleksandrze Ogińskiej, Helenie Radziwiłłowej i Stanisławowi Kostce Potockiemu. To dzięki nim, inspirowanym wieloma europejskimi podróżami i jeszcze liczniejszymi publikacjami poświęconymi sztuce ogrodowej, powstała w ostatnich latach istnienia Rzeczpospolitej i pierwszych jej unicestwienia mozaika form ogrodowych, trudnych czasami do sklasyfikowania, które później przyjęto nazywać „angielskimi”, choć bliżej im wówczas było do wielu krajobrazowych ogrodów francuskich.
EN
The article presents a history of development of informal gardens in Poland. The earliest gardens of this kind arose in the 3rd terce of the 18th century. This first phase of establishing freestyle gardens was noted by many journalists, travelers, diplomats, scientists who came to us at that time and who left behind priceless „travel descriptions”. Their judgment was sometimes painfully honest. Many owners of these gardens were accused of glistening and showing off, often ineptly and unpalatably imitating foreign patterns, and very rarely manifesting sincere involvement. The latter cannot be denied to Polish gardeners-dilettantes: Izabela Czartoryska, Aleksandra Lubomirska, Aleksander Ogińska, Helena Radziwiłowa and Stanisław Kostka Potocki. It is thanks to them, inspired by many European journeys and even more numerous publications devoted to garden art, that in the last years of the Republic’s existence and the first few of its downfall, a mosaic of garden forms appeared, sometimes difficult to classify, later named “English”, though they were closer to many French landscape gardens at that time.
EN
Although the orthodoxy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth belonged to the circle of Russian Christianity, one must be aware that there are three liturgical traditions within this group: Polish-Lithuanian (i.e. Ukrainian - Belarusian), Muscovite (i.e. Russian), and Greek-catholic (Uniate). In Church Slavonic and Old Russian writing in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth one can also notice some elements coming from Balkans, Mount Athos, Constantinople and Moldavian principalities. In the manuscripts coming from the territory of the Commonwealth, including the ones kept at present in Polish libraries and museums, there are many works linked with the ancient literature of Balkan Slavs. Most of them belong to the common heritage of all the Slav lands and do not indicate any local specificity. Still there are few significant works that can be divided into three categories: 1) works linked with the oldest period of Old Slavonic writing, mostly also connected with the tradition of Cyril and Methodius; 2) texts – significant for their new interpretation, for playing new roles – demonstrating the permeating of Balkan works into our writing, linked with particular historical events, which were considered relevant for the Commonwealth; 3) texts connected with St Parascheva-Petka.
PL
The article analyses English and Scottish travellers’ accounts of interdenominational relations, and specifically religious toleration, as observed in the seventeenth century Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. It traces the changing British perception of these matters over time, from when toleration was a subject of admiration until it began to be seen as a sign of anarchic religious liberty, a weakness; something to be, as Gilbert instigated, ‘abolished and removed from the body and the bounds’ of the English monarchy.
PL
Polski konstytucjonalizm ma znacznie starszą metrykę niż zazwyczaj kojarzony z nim 1791 r. Wszak w materialnym znaczeniu terminu konstytucja jest synomimem ustroju politycznego, a zatem towarzyszy ona polskiej państwowości od jej zarania. Ewolucja rodzimej monarchii doprowadziła do powstania znaczących dokumentów jurydycznych, tworzących sformalizowaną część nadwiślańskiego konstytucjonalizmu, uzupełnianą przez zwyczaje. Obejmowały one niespisane ustrojowe fundamenty, które w 1767 r. uległy instytucjonalizacji w postaci Praw kardynalnych. Można je traktować jako pierwszą polsko-litewską konstytucję, jeśli pod tym pojęciem będziemy rozumieć zawierający najważniejsze dla państwa postanowienia akt o najwyższej jurydycznej mocy. W 1791 r. stała się nim Ustawa Rządowa z 3 Maja, przekreślająca dorobek rodzimego konstytucjonalizmu w imię dostosowania się do ówczesnych eurostandartów.
EN
Polish constitutionalism has sufficiently old tradition. In the material sense constitution means political system, so she is as old as our state. In the process of evolution in ourmonarchy appeared any important juridicial acts, which composed institutionalised part of native constitutionalism apart from fundamental for political regime customs. In 1767 these basic principles were published as Cardinal laws, which may be treated as original summit of lithuanian-polish constitutionalism. His end arrived in 1791 year, when in the name of progress was proclamed co called Constitution of Third May, which annihilated our original model of constitutional statehood.
EN
The author discusses the letter of nuncio Mario Filonardi to King Ladislaus IV on April 19, 1638. In this letter the nuncio tries to persuade the king do not nominate an Orthodox bishop for Łuck cathedral, after the death of the uniate Bishop Jeremiah Poczapowski. By law, this bishopric should be taken by Athanasius Puzyna, an Orthodox bishop. The nuncio treated the Orthodox citizens of the Republic not only as “alien” Christians but also as “alien” in the Polish-Lithuanian State. Ladislaus IV was not convinced by Filonardi. The bishopric of Łuck was taken over by Bishop Athanasius Puzyna under the royal privilege of April 20, 1638.
EN
The society of the Commonwealth was always characterized – to a greater or lesser degree – by a diversified religious and national structure. The problem with a society with different religious characteristics had appeared on a large scale already in the 14th century, when ethnically non-Polish people could be found within the borders of the Commonwealth. In the 14th century the Kingdom of Poland lost extensive ethnically Polish areas in the West. The religious and ethnic structure of the state changed due to the incorporation of Red Ruthenia by Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz Wielki). Casimir III the Great – the last representative of the Piast dynasty – understood the importance of the problem connected with the presence of Orthodox Church members within state borders. The king preserved the rights and rites of the Orthodox Church. Political relations between the grand Duchy of Lithuania and Catholic Poland had religious repercussions. It curbed the development of the Orthodox religion and paved the way for the Latin Church – with all the political and cultural consequences. The Orthodox religion changed from the dominating position to a tolerated one. Yet the Jagiellonians understood that Orthodox people inhabited their own – in an ethnic sense – territories. The Jagiellonians, as opposed to the Angevin (Andegawenowie) or the House of Valois (Walezjusze), built their power on the multireligious structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They did not intend to follow the western model of a single religion Roman Catholic state, with one dominating Latin culture. Their stand resulted from the ethnic structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. During the Jagiellonian dynasty, the Orthodox religion became a national and folk denomination, through the omnipresence of various forms of cult and rites. The power of the Commonwealth was based on its recognition by the Orthodox Ruthenian population of the Crown and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as their own state. Good multireligious and multicultural cohabitation was shaken by the 1596 Union of Brest (Unia Brzeska). The Union of Brest undermined the main element of Ruthenian culture, based on its spiritual unity with Byzantium. A medial element, situated between the two traditions, was added to the existing Catholic-Orthodox model. The Union’s initiators were mistaken in their beliefs that its attractiveness would move Ruthenians from the Orthodox Church. Despite this tendency, the fall of Orthodox culture did not take place; on the contrary, it developed in new forms, which were more adequate to 17th century’s reality. Consequently, the Union of Brest did not turn against the Orthodox Church as such, but the Orthodox Church in the Commonwealth. The Union of Brest was in some aspects beneficial for the Roman Catholic Church, yet it did not solve any of the internal problems of the state. In Poland the distance between Polish elites and Ruthenian culture increased. A Protestant, brought up in western culture, was closer to a Catholic than a Ruthenian following Byzantine traditions, though increasingly more and more immersed in Polish culture.
EN
The main goal of this paper is to show if and how religious language is functioning in the daily newspaper – Rzeczpospolita. In the article we analyzed all the articles which were included in the Rzeczpospolita from 11th of January 2013 to 11th of February 2013. Through the analysis we came to the following conclusions. (1) In the Rzeczpospolita exists the religious language. (2) The religious language in the Rzeczpospolita has different functions: (a) the referential language function, (b) the expressive language function, (c) the performative language function, (d) the argumentative language function, (e) the communicative language function. (3) The religious language can be not only found in religious writings but also in the daily newspaper.
EN
The text presents the shaping of the international regional order in Europe in early modern times exemplified with the Northern War (1655–1660). The text includes an analysis of a big war waged under specific conditions, which had its causes and which was an instrument of a policy made in a definite space and time geared to achieve certain political objectives connected with an international position such as it was perceived by its participants. At the same time the text is a case study of war understood as a situational model of a policy made during the Northern War (1655–1660), which affected the shaping of a certain order, and as a result there were some changes both in the international order and in internal relations of the participants of the 1655–1660 war.
PL
Przedmiotem artykułu jest przedstawienie na przykładzie wojny północnej (1655–1660) kształtowania się regionalnego porządku międzynarodowego w Europie w epoce wczesnonowożytnej. W pracy dokonano analizy przypadku dużej wojny, przeprowadzonej w określonych warunkach, mającej swoje podłoże i przyczyny, ale stanowiącej również instrument polityki, realizowanej w określonej przestrzeni i czasie oraz nastawionej na osiągnięcie pewnych celów politycznych, związanych z postrzeganą przez jej uczestników pozycją w skali międzynarodowej. Artykuł jest jednocześnie studium przypadku wojny rozumianej jako model sytuacyjny określonej polityki, realizowanej podczas wojny północnej 1655–1660, wywierającej wpływ na ukształtowanie się określonego ładu, skutkującego zmianami zarówno w porządku międzynarodowym, jak i w stosunkach wewnętrznych uczestników wojny 1655–1660.
EN
Analyzing  the  pronouns which  accompanied  the  notion  of  liberty  in  18th-century Polish political  thought,  the article brings  to  light essential  questions from the borderland between political ideology philosophy and  philosophy of the state. The fact that it was liberty within some community –  ours, rather than that of the individual, mine – is particularly emphasized.  The basis of possessing liberty was the fact of being a citizen of the Commonwealth, or being a nobleman; that is, belonging to a certain society. Only  that guaranteed freedom and it could be fulfilled only within this framework.  It was not only a collective liberty – within a community, everyone enjoyed  liberty personally, deciding for himself individually, which is eloquently illustrated by the unspoken popularity of the pronouns “himself” and “his”  (on “his” own) . Thus, “their” liberty occurs considerably rarely, more often  it is rather „their” slavery – that of the orders different from the noblemen  (szlachta) and that of states which are different from the Commonwealth.  Conceptualizations of community were about to be changed at the end of  the 18th century, when, under the influence of Western theories, more and  more attention was paid  to “my”/”his”  liberty,  the one  that was derived  from nature for every man. However, the vision of “our” liberty turned out  to be exceptionally long-lasting and was revived in the 19th century, when  the loss of independence proved that without the community’s liberty, the  very liberty of the individuals who constitute that community is threatened.
PL
Artykuł poprzez analizę zaimków towarzyszących pojęciu wolności w polskiej myśli politycznej XVIII wieku pokazuje istotne kwestie z pogranicza ideologii politycznej i filozofii państwa. Przede wszystkim fakt, że była to nie tyle wolność indywidualna – moja, ile wolność w ramach pewnej wspólnoty – nasza. Podstawą posiadania wolności był fakt bycia obywatelem Rzeczypospolitej, czy bycia szlachcicem, czyli przynależność do określonej zbiorowości. Tylko ona gwarantowała swobodę i tylko w jej ramach mogła się ona realizować. Stąd wolność „ich” występuje stosunkowo rzadko, częściej jest to raczej „ich” niewola – stanów innych niż szlachecki, państw innych niż Rzeczpospolita. Nie była to jednak tylko wolność kolektywna – w ramach wspólnoty każdy indywidualnie cieszył się wolnością, sam decydował o sobie, czego wymowną ilustracją jest niesłychanie popularny zaimek „sam, sobie”. Koncepcje wspólnotowe zaczęły ulegać zmianom pod koniec wieku XVIII, kiedy pod wpływem teorii zachodnich coraz więcej uwagi poświęcano wolności „mojej/jego” – wolności należnej z natury każdemu człowiekowi. Wizja wolności „naszej” okazała się jednak wyjątkowo trwała, odżyła w wieku XIX, kiedy utrata niepodległości pokazała, że bez wolności wspólnoty zagrożona jest także wolność jednostek ją składających.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia poglądy wybitnego brytyjskiego polityka i myśliciela, Edmunda Burke’a (1730–1797), na sytuację Rzeczypospolitej. Burke poświęcił jej sprawom niewiele uwagi, jednak w oparciu o jej przykład sformułował kilka tez na temat wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych przyczyn upadku państw. Poglądy te rozwinął w ostatnich latach swej działalności, koncentrując uwagę na rewolucji francuskiej.
EN
The article presents the opinions and views of the outstanding British politician and thinker, Edmund Burke (1730– 1797), on the situation of the Commonwealth. Burke devoted little attention to Polish affairs, but using its example, he formulated some theses on the internal and external reasons for the collapse of states. These views he developed in the last years of his activity, focusing on the French revolution.
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