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EN
When does man begin to be old: when he is sixty, sixty-five and perhaps seventy? Nothing is more uncertain than the beginning of the old age. Is man`s age the matter of his heart, brain, mood, or chronological time? In the ancient world, there was no clear understanding regarding the beginning of the old age. We have different classifications of the stages of human life, but there was no specified year, which would mark the old age. It was a year between 46 and 60 years of age. Today the age of 46 is not the beginning of the old age. In the ancient world, life was much shorter, so it is not surprising that 46 years old was regarded as the beginning of old age. There were two trends in ancient Greece and Rome. One represented by Plato and Cicero: older people are wise, experienced, worthy of reverence and respect. The second trend represented by Aristotle: older people are quarrelsome, greedy, cowardly. The life of old people was different. The rich lived very well, but in general the old age in ancient times was a difficult time.
EN
In ancient Egypt the punishment had public character. Capital punishments and corporal punishments were also used. Code of Hammurabi was based on lex talionis. The most severe punishment was capital punishment. Liability of builders, physicians, veterinarians was based on objective principle. Hebrew law was based on the principle of fued. In ancient Greece were functioning the expanded catalogue of punishments. In Roman law was functioning the division of crimes on crimina publica and delicta privata
PL
This paper pertains to participation of young Athenian girls in rituals. Some researchers perceive these rites as initiation rites. The Athenian girls’ participation in rites-related duties shows how important they were not only for the Athenian girls, but also for women in general. The ritual was treated as a substitute of men’s public activity. We can divide the Athenian girls’ participation into two categories: rites in which they played the main role, and rites in which their role was auxiliary or simply marginal.
PL
Na przestrzeni wieków postrzeganie ludzi chorych i niepełnosprawnych zmieniało się. Zaczynając od czasów starożytnych, a nawet wcześniejszych, społeczeństwa różnie podchodziły do tematu choroby i kalectwa. Cywilizacje dążyły do tworzenia zdrowego społeczeństwa, co było możliwe (zdaniem ówczesnych społeczeństw) tylko drogą eliminacji. Niepełnosprawność, kalectwo, ułomność w czasach starożytnych obejmujących okres od 2500 r. p.n.e. do 476 r. n.e postrzegane były jako przejaw przekleństwa, kary bogów, działania sił nadprzyrodzonych. W starożytnej Grecji porzucanie, zabijanie noworodków często wymagane było nawet przez państwo, a filozofowie Platon czy Arystoteles przedstawiali poglądy wykluczania niepełnosprawnych ze społeczeństwa. Rzymianie uważali, że narodzenie się dziecka z defektami było zapowiedzią zbliżającej się katastrofy. Ułomnych dorosłych obrażano, nadając im przydomki wyśmiewające ich cechy czy niedoskonałości anatomiczne. Wczesne chrześcijaństwo, to pierwsze próby leczenia niepełnosprawności, chociaż nękające choroby, kalectwo przedstawiano jako karę za grzechy. Starożytne cywilizacje dążyły do tworzenia zdrowego społeczeństwa drogą eliminacji, okrucieństwa, bezwzględności wobec niepełnosprawnych, ułomnych, co miało odzwierciedlenie w religii, kulturze czy aspekcie ekonomicznym. Na ewolucję poglądów dotyczących niepełnosprawności miało wpływ wiele czynników, takich jak rozwój nauki, technologii, obowiązująca kultura, systemy wartości czy poglądy filozoficzne. Medycyna dopiero się rozwijała, więc dostęp do jakiegokolwiek lekarza był bardzo ograniczony. Bogatsi, lepiej usytuowani często mieli szansę na przeżycie, ale często i ci, w przypadku choroby czy niepełnosprawności, byli spychani na margines społeczeństwa.
EN
Over the centuries, perceptions towards disability varied significantly. In ancient times, and even before, there were different approaches to illness and disability. Civilizations sought to create a healthy society that was possible, according to contemporary societies, only by elimination. In ancient times, in the period from 2500 BC to 476 AD, disability was seen as a result of a curse or punishment from gods for sinning. In Ancient Greece, abandonment of newborns or killing babies was even often required by the state. Philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, held a view that people with disabilities should be excluded from the society. Also the Romans believed that the birth of a child with birth defects presaged impending disaster. Adults with disabilities often experienced verbal attacks, such as taunts or name calling. First attempts to treat disability date back to early Christian times, although illness and disability were regarded as punishment for sins. Ancient civilizations sought to build a healthy society through elimination, cruelty and ruthlessness towards people with disabilities, which was reflected in religion, culture or economy. Beliefs about disability have changed over time through many different factors that is development of science, technology, culture, value systems and philosophical views. Ancient civilizations began practicing medicine, so there was a very limited access to a doctor. Even though wealthier people had a chance to survive, in the case of an illness or disability they were often pushed to the margins of society.
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