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EN
This paper investigates the semantics of English only and two equivalent expressions in Japanese -dake and -shika, giving attention to two aspects: (i) the debate over the status of two propositions that are involved in the use of ONLY expressions and (ii) the semantic and pragmatic differences among ONLY items, if any. We claim that a sentence with ONLY expressions entails both the affirmative and negative propositions. This view raises issues with Horn's original claim (1969) as well as van Rooij and Schulz's (2005) while supporting Atlas (1991, 1993) and Horn (2002). We claim then that the difference in strength between the affirmative and negative propositions emerges from what is asserted by that sentence. One of the bases for our claim is that there is a significant difference in behavior between entailment and assertion of a given sentence, following Horn (2002). This difference explains the difference between -dake on the one hand and -shika and -only on the other: -dake differs from only and -shika in that it asserts the affirmative proposition while -shika and only asserts the negative proposition.
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The Logical Burdens of Proof. Assertion and Hypothesis

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EN
The paper proposes two logical analyses of (the norms of) justification. In a first, realist-minded case, truth is logically independent from justification and leads to a pragmatic logic LP including two epistemic and pragmatic operators, namely, assertion and hypothesis. In a second, antirealist-minded case, truth is not logically independent from justification and results in two logical systems of information and justification: AR4 and AR4¢, respectively, provided with a question-answer semantics. The latter proposes many more epistemic agents, each corresponding to a wide variety of epistemic norms. After comparing the different norms of justification involved in these logical systems, two hexagons expressing Aristotelian relations of opposition will be gathered in order to clarify how (a fragment of) pragmatic formulas can be interpreted in a fuzzy-based question-answer semantics.
EN
The article deals with the contemporary meaning of the adverb mimochodem 'in passing/casually'. After a brief disciussion of semantic changes within this unit, the synchronic analysis is presented. Appropriate contextual analysis of the adverb mimochodem shows that it collocates only with some verbs of saying. Numerous semantic restrictions suggest that the lexical unit mimochodem places specific speech acts within more general speech events. In the conclusion of the article, the author proposes to capture the relevant semantic properties of the discussed adverb by means of appropriate semantic explication.
Diametros
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2019
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vol. 16
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issue 59
23-34
EN
In this paper, I show that Turri’s (2015a) experimental study concerning selfless assertions is defective and should therefore be rejected. One performs a selfless assertion when one states something that one does not believe, and hence does not know, despite possessing well supported evidence to the contrary. Following his experimental study, Turri argues that agents in fact both believe and know the content of their selfless assertions. In response to this claim, I demonstrate that the conclusions he draws are premature in this regard. More specifically, I criticize his methodology, showing that his study is not only incomplete but also yields contradictory results. In closing, I propose how such a study should be conducted in order to receive comprehensive results.
PL
Professor Jerzy Pelc was the creator and long-time manager of the Department of Logical Semiotics, University of Warsaw. He also founded the Polish Society of Semiotics. He published six own books, among others Studies in Functional Logical Semiotics of Natural Language (1971; in English); he edited also dozens of volumes of Semiotic Studies and Library of Semiotic Thought.  As Kotarbiński, his master, and Twardowski, the master of his master, Professor Pelc was a radical rationalist. This radical rationalism has linked him to atheism, anti-communism, a distance to politics, and a frown on the falsehood of public life. He was a great patriot – in his life and in his work. He considered himself a successor of the Lvov-Warsaw School tradition. In the field of metaphysics, Professor Pelc combined theoretical minimalism with anti-rationalist attitudes, including the postulate of precision and the requirement of criticism. The main field of his interest was logical – and broader: theoretical – semiotics. He advocated and largely developed the functional concept of signs. To traditional paradigms of research: historical, teleological, causal and prognostic ones – Professor Pelc has added a semiotic paradigm, determined by the question “What does it mean that p?”. Referring to the interdisciplinary fashion for interdisciplinary research, he conducted an analysis of the notion of interdisciplinarity. In ontology, he analyzed the notions of object and causality. In his approach, aesthetics was treated form a semiotic point of view: he sought mainly ways to logically rewrite its terminology. In particular, he reconstructed the main aesthetic notions: form and ideology (of literary works), theme, motive, metaphor and (literary) fiction – as well as semiotic notions essential to the description of literary arts, namely the notions of assertion and intensionality. In the field of ethics, Professor Pelc declared himself as an advocate of the ideal of trustworthy guardian, which he took over from his teacher, Kotarbiński. In metaethics, he analyzed the notions of norm, evaluation and humanity. A master of Polish: beautiful Polish – he was certainly a true humanist.
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Four Basic Argument Forms

72%
EN
This paper provides a theoretical rationale for distinguishing four basic argument forms. On the basis of a survey of classical and contemporary definitions of argument, a set of assumptions is formulated regarding the linguistic and pragmatic aspects of arguments. It is demonstrated how these assumptions yield four different argument forms: (1) first-order predicate arguments, (2) first-order subject arguments, (3) second-order subject arguments, and (4) second-order predicate arguments. These argument forms are then further described and illustrated by means of concrete examples, and it is explained how they are visually represented in the Periodic Table of Arguments.
EN
This article shows lexemes such as głupi (gwóźdź), debilne (zebranie), idiotyczny (ząb), nieszczęsne (dokumenty) (a stupid/foolish/ridiculous/wretched (nail/meeting/tooth/document)) as a subgroup of metapredicative adjectives with expressive and colloquial markedness. When they moved to the level of speaking about speaking, they lost some of the formal characteristics of typical adjectives (they are non-contrastive, non-negatable, nod-gradable among other features) and the meanings associated with mental impairment, illness, and other misfortunes have changed into the carrier of the evaluation ‘it’s not worth talking about’. This process falls into the research on grammaticalisation. This article provides an overview of dictionary entries of the analysed expressions and the author’s preliminary hypothesis on their capability to reinforce assertion.
PL
Artykuł ukazuje leksemy typu głupi (gwóźdź), debilne (zebranie), idiotyczny (ząb), nieszczęsne (dokumenty) jako podgrupę przymiotników metapredykatywnych o nacechowaniu ekspresywnym i potocznym. Przechodząc na poziom mówienia o mówieniu, utraciły one niektóre cechy formalne typowych przymiotników (m.in. są niekontrastywne, nienegowalne, nie stopniują się), a znaczenia upośledzenia umysłowego, choroby i innych nieszczęść zmieniły się w nośnik oceny ‘nie warto o tym mówić’. Proces ten wpisuje się w badania nad gramatykalizacją. Artykuł zawiera przegląd haseł słownikowych analizowanych wyrażeń, a także wstępną hipotezę autorki o ich zdolności do wzmacniania asercji. 
EN
Frege introduced the notion of pragmatic force as what distinguishes statements from questions. This distinction was elaborated by Wittgenstein in his later works, and systematised as an account of different kinds of speech acts in formal dialogue theory by Hamblin. It lies at the heart of the inferential semantics more recently developed by Brandom. The present paper attempts to sketch some of the relations between these developments.
9
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Crítica de la mentira emotiva

58%
ES
Una de las facetas más relevantes de nuestro presente es el supuesto auge de la posverdad. Sin comprometernos con su existencia, podemos, desde la Filosofía, pensar, como mínimo, alguna de sus facetas. Y la faceta que sobre la que aquí reflexionaremos es la de la posverdad como mentira emotiva. Sin embargo, dado que “mentira emotiva” intuitivamente significa poco, justificaré que lo que la mentira emotiva privilegiadamente significa puede deducir de la teoría filosófica de la bullshit a partir del desarrollo de (1) la carga emocional que puede implicar la bullshit, (2) la clarificación de los requisitos de la institución de la aserción, y (3) la transición coerente del bullshitter al bullshitee.
EN
One of the most relevant facets of our time is the supposed rise of post–truth. Without committing ourselves to its existence, we can, from Philosophy, think, at least, about some of its facets. And the facet that we will reflect on here is that of post–truth as an emotional lie. However, given that "emotional lying" meaning is not clear, I will justify that what emotional lying privilegedly means can be deduced from the philosophical theory of bullshit. That deduction comes from the development of (1) the emotion which bullshit can imply, (2) the clarification of the requirements of the institution of the assertion, and (3) the coherent transition from bullshitter to bullshitee.
PL
Pojęcia „byt” i „niebyt” weszły do języka filozoficznego, dając podstawę ontologii i meontologii, jako odpowiedniki greckich wyrażeń to on i to me on (urzeczownikowionych form, pozytywnej i negatywnej, imiesłowu czasownika einai. Wyrażenia te w oryginale nie oznaczały jednak pierwotnie nic przedmiotowego, lecz pełniły funkcję nazw metajęzykowych, reprezentujących spójkę zdaniową ‚einai’ we wszystkich jej formach, a najogólniej – jej formę twierdzącą i przeczącą. Sama zaś spójka ta, w której późniejsza filozofia dopatrzyła się znaczenia egzystencjalnego „istnieć”, pełniła tylko funkcję pustego znaczeniowo łącznika predykatów. Z czasem imiesłów o]n zaczął być stosowany jako uniwersalna nazwa wszelkich predykatów. Wymienione wyrażenia stały się centralnymi w greckiej terminologii filozoficznej dzięki zainicjowanym przez Parmenidesa sporom na temat roli negacji w opisie świata. Sam Parmenides zaproponował zupełne wykluczenie zdań negatywnych jako opisujących przez eliminację, i stworzył system pozytywno monistyczny, zarzucający wielość, podzielność i zmienność. Późniejsi filozofowie wystąpili w obronie negacji, zwalczając związane z nią paradoksy, jakie wysuwali eleaci, a potem sofiści. Platon zauważył, że nie da się bez zastosowania negacji opisać wielości rzeczy, wyróżnił też negację względną, która nie każe niczego eliminować, a pozwala tylko na konfrontację jednych rzeczy z innymi. Według atomistów podzielność rzeczy fizycznych zmusza do przyjęcia ich złożoności z elementu pozytywnego w postaci nieprzenikliwego ciała oraz czynnika, któremu trzeba odmówić wszelkich cech, tj. pustki. Wreszcie Arystoteles, analizując proces zmiany, uzasadniał niesprzeczność twierdzenia, że coś powstaje z „nie będącego” i „będącego”, przy założeniu, że pierwsze rozumie się jako bycie aktualne, drugie – potencjalne. We wszystkich tych koncepcjach nie ma teorii czegoś nieistniejącego, są tylko propozycje wskazania takich aspektów rzeczywistości, w których wyjaśnianiu uzasadnione jest stosowanie negacji. Forma twierdząca i przecząca powyższych wyrażeń prowokowała także refleksję nad zagadnieniem prawdy i fałszu. Zauważono, że służą one w języku potocznym nie tylko do stwierdzania zgodności lub niezgodności z rzeczywistym stanem rzeczy, ale także jako formuły asercji i odrzucania.
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