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PL
Thin skull doctrine, living tree, blue-sky law, clean hands, cloud on title… Metafory niewątrpliwie odgrywają istotną rolę w prawniczym języku angielskim. W jaki sposób można wyjaśnić popularność metafor w języku prawa w systemie common law ? Metafory w języku prawa pozwalają na zrozumienie abstrakcyjnych pojęć dzięki sugestywnym i znanym obrazom. Jest to jedna z funkcji metafor, która zostanie omówiona w niniejszym artykule. Po dokonaniu krótkiego przeglądu dwóch grup metafor szczególnie bogatych w jednostki leksykalne w angielskim języku prawa (nazywane w języku francuskim les métaphores corporelles oraz les métaphores « naturelles »), omównione zostaną zagadnienia dotyczące ich przekładu. Autor stoi na stanowisku, że poza najczęściej stosowaną metodą przekładu (konieczności adaptatcji metafor ze względu na wyższy poziom abstrakcyjności języka francuskiego), możliwe są również inne techniki przekładu, włączając w to przekłąd literalny. Autor dokonuje analizy konkretnych metafor, w stosunku do których można zastosować technikę przekładu literalnego.
EN
Thin skull doctrine, living tree, blue-sky law, clean hands, cloud on title… Metaphors play a very important role in the English legal language. How can we explain the popularity of metaphors in legal langauge of common law? Metaphors help understand abstract concepts thanks to pictueresque and well known images. This function of metaphors will be discussed in this paper.Having reviewed two groups of metaphors in the English legal language (called in French les métaphores corporelles and les métaphores «naturelles»), the author thouches upon the problems connected with their translation. It is concluded that apart from the most popular translation method (adaptation of metaphors due to the more abstract nature of the French language), other translation may be applied as well including literal translation. The author analyzes certain metaphors in respect of which literal translation may be applied.
FR
Thin skull doctrine, living tree, blue-sky law, clean hands, cloud on title… Les métaphores occupent à l’évidence une place centrale dans le vocabulaire juridique anglais. Comment expliquer le succès de cette figure de style dans le langage de la common law ? Les métaphores juridiques permettent de rendre accessibles, au moyen d’images évocatrices et familières, des concepts qui, sans elles, resteraient abstraits. C’est là une de leurs fonctions, parmi d’autres que nous nous efforcerons de cerner dans le cadre de la présente communication. Après un rapide survol de deux familles de métaphores particulièrement productives en anglais juridique (les métaphores corporelles et les métaphores « naturelles » au sens large), nous nous interrogerons sur la traduction des métaphores. Nous verrons qu’au-delà de la règle générale (adaptation de la métaphore rendue nécessaire par le degré d’abstraction supérieur du français), d’autres techniques de traduction sont également possibles, dont la traduction littérale. Nous nous pencherons également sur le cas particulier des métaphores « filées », qui peuvent parfois justifier le recours à une traduction littérale.
EN
The Księga Henrykowska has long been acknowledged by legal scholars as providing prime examples of Polish customary law that still serve as foundations for Polish legal history. In this paper, one of the disputes chronicled in Księga Henrykowska is treated as a case study in order to shed light on legal reasoning and argumentation in 13th-century Poland. These developments are paralleled with their contemporaries in England, which laid the foundations for common law. Legal concepts from common law research are then applied to the case, resulting in broader conclusions and speculative research questions that open the door to further research paralleling Polish and English legal history.
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EN
Sir John Fortescue, Chancellor of King Henry VI is the first writer to analyse the political system of England by referring to English political practice. Long before Montesquieu, he noticed the relationship between the political system and the social conditions of his country. Explaining the nature of the English constitution and law, he compare it with the political and legal devices of other countries. That is why he contrasts the systems based on Roman law with English common law. In the article, the author argues that the basis of the Fortescue’s reflection is the rejection of Roman law, because he defends the English political tradition against the continental concept of sovereignty.
PL
System prawa amerykańskiego jawi się jako skomplikowany dla prawnika wykształconego w państwie z unitarnym systemem prawa przede wszystkim z uwagi na swój dualizm i podział na system federalny i stanowy przy jednoczesnym oparciu o common law. Niniejszy artykuł dotyczy wzajemnych relacji pomiędzy tymi dwoma systemami, odnosząc się jednocześnie do zagadnienia jurysdykcji sądów federalnych i stanowych.
EN
The American legal system appears to be complicated for lawyers educaded in a country with a unitary system of law. Mainly because of its dualism and further division to the federal and state level and also because of the common law system itself. This article regards the relation between those levels and puts some attention to the jurisdiction issue of federal and state’s courts.
EN
Starting with the Middle Ages, the system of writs (forms of actions) began to dominate the English law. Like Roman actiones which may be regarded as equivalents of writs, thus also the latter allowed to determine the circumstances in which an individual was guaranteed to protection of law. The list of writs was exhaustive while the law was considered to be something that was not subjected to changes. Therefore the legal fictions were found to be the only mechanism that made it possible to adapt the common law to the evolving socio-economic circumstances. Thanks to these fictions the parties involved in the litigation could reach the objectives that they desired and that otherwise (without resorting to the fiction) might be unattainable by them. The exploitation of the fiction consisted in the invoking by the trial participant the circumstances that notoriously were not true, the adversary party being simultaneously prevented from proving the opposite. In the course of time the fictions became a characteristic feature of the common law. It was thanks to their application that in the 15th through 17th centuries the scope of the Westminster courts’ jurisdictional competence became enlarged. The fictions enabled these courts to settle matters that originally were beyond the scope of their jurisdiction. The application of fictions resulted also in the broadening of the scope within which the particular writs could be resorted to. This consequently led to the extention of legal protection to the situations with respect to which the earlier common law proved helpless for the lack of any legal remedy.
EN
Electoral behavior is a new element in the political analysis of democracy in Albania. Distinctive features of the Albanian transition distinguish other models of the former communist countries, as well as significantly differ with Western models and electoral behavior analysis of the relations between political actors and citizens voting. Penal Code of the Republic of Albania remains the basis of criminal law to sanction criminal acts in the election. The object of criminal misconduct are directly related to the normal criminal and legal protection and free elections as well as the Albanian Constitution provides all these obstacles to electoral subjects committed by force or by any other means which directly affect the normal performance electoral system. Barriers can be done with physical or psychological, and consists in blocking commissioners election materials, election materials decay affecting decay electoral system unfairly supported a particular political party or a coalition of political parties that present list candidacy according to the rules defined in the electoral code. Albanian Constitution as the fundamental law of the Albanian state provides for the rightness of the equality of the vote for all Albanian citizens The vote is the democratic way that every citizen expressing the opinion and its political will but to have democratic value ratings should be personal equal, free and secret. The right to vote is a political right provided by the Albanian Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and as such is closely linked to democracy, the sovereignty of the people and citizens. Total vote, or the right to get to the polls all Albanian citizens, men and women, and in fact is the greatest achievement of the twentieth century. According to the Electoral Code of the Republic of Albania every citizen exercises his right to vote at his polling station, where placed under citizen’s location criteria. Voting centers organized in such a way as to facilitate the voting process and ensure the secrecy of the vote. Democracy lives by opinions competition. In all areas of society, in the family and at school, association and enterprise, democracy needs a social climate which stimulate open discussion on the differences of opinion.
EN
In a common law jurisdiction, according to the principle of stare decisis judges are bound to interpret a constitutional or common law principle by applying authoritative cases already decided. Parties in disputes pending before the courts must find and assess the prior cases on which they can expect that judges will rely. Not very long ago, research for such precedent involved reviewing known cases and linking them to other cases using topical digests and citators. Success with this approach required a patient, persistent, thorough, and open-minded methodology. Modern information accessibility gives previously unimaginable quick access to cases, including with tools that promise to predict judicial tendencies. But this technological accessibility can have negative side effects, including a diminished research aptitude and a stilted capacity to synthesize information. It can also lead to an inadequate account of the human factors that often cause judges to depart from predictions based on logical inference from prior cases. This article considers the extent to which the identification of precedent is essential in legal analysis, yet is of limited value in predictability as a result of judges’ unavoidably human perspectives. With examples from landmark cases, the article illustrates that judges sometimes make decisions based on considerations that will not be revealed in a mechanistic application of precedent. The article considers how evolving legal research tools and methods give access to precedent that in some respects makes the process more scientific, but in other respects can obscure the realities of how cases are decided. The article also gives examples of this paradox as demonstrated by today’s students who are learning how to do research, drawn from years of the authors’ teaching experience.
EN
The purpose of the paper is to discuss the problems arising from the application of sub-clause 20.1 of the FIDIC contract templates in the civil and common law countries. For these considerations, the author chose the red and yellow book editions of 1999 in unmodified versions. The paper tries to determine whether it is possible to implement the sub-clause in their original wording in the above-mentioned legal systems. Another aspect under the scrutiny of the author is the legal nature of provisions of 20.1 sub-clause which concern, in particular, the issues related to the 28-day deadline for filing a claim and releasing the contracting authority from the obligation to provide compensation as a result of the Contractor's failure to meet the indicated deadline. The research was conducted using the legal-comparative method. With regard to the civil law system, the analysis concerned the compliance of the sub-clause provisions with mandatory standards, in particular Article 119 of the Civil Code, and Article 353¹ in conjunction with Article 58 of the Civil Code. When it comes to the common law jurisdiction, the study concerned the consequences of failure to comply with the obligation imposed by the sub-clause on the Contractor in the light of the prevention principle and on the basis of praemia that law does not arise from injustice. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that sub-clause 20.1 of the FIDIC contract terms requires prior modifications both in civil and common law countries and adaptation to the requirements of the law in force in the country in which it is to be implemented.
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EN
The article presents a historical aspect of development of the right to privacy in the American legal system. The considerations bring closer the most significant issues concerning the privacy protection presented among U.S. case-law and doctrine.
EN
The purpose of this article is to show some doubts concerning the unification of private law in the European Union. The reference point for the discussion is European Civil Code. Particular attention is paid to the problems arising around legislative works including lack of common terminology, identifying the subject and scope of regulations or methodology of studies that were made. Considerations are crowned by the conclusion that, although there are serious doubts as to competence of the European Union in scope of making of European Civil Code and lack of political will from member states, these are not impossible to overcome problems and the major hurdle is made by the differences between the continental law system and the common law.
PL
Poza krótkim wprowadzeniem na temat filozofii prawa, jaką jest amerykański realizm prawny, w pracy zostały przedstawione rola i etyka prawnika w ujęciu Karla Nickersona Llewellyna. Poglądy tego amerykańskiego realisty prawnego opatrzone są komentarzem autora wraz z próbą ich przeniesienia na grunt polski. Przy tym szczególnie osobliwe jest to, iż zgodnie z obowiązującym w Polsce prawem prawnik nie ma możliwości odmowy podjęcia się obrony sprawy, w której słuszność nie wierzy. Prawo każdego człowieka do uczciwego procesu wydaje się tutaj mieć bezwzględne pierwszeństwo nad tym, co adwokatom i radcom prawnym dyktuje sumienie i to nawet przy założeniu, że w praktyce będzie się to czasem odbywało kosztem tego, iż poszczególne sprawy, z powodu braku wiary w ich słuszność, będą prowadzone przez pełnomocników procesowych w sposób nie do końca optymalny.
EN
Apart from a short introduction to the movement known as American Legal Realism, this paper describes the role and ethics of the lawyer as viewed by Karl Nickerson Llewellyn. The author invokes some of Llewellyn’s outlooks and comments upon them, revealing their timeless character and highlighting the pertinent Polish peculiarities. Some of these peculiarities may seem slightly astonishing, particularly the lack in Poland of the ethical principle which prescribes that a lawyer should believe in his or her client’s case. According to Polish law, the principle that everyone should be assured a fair trial (hearing) appears to be second to none and someone’s conscience is no argument against denying the defense of a case that seems unworthy of being won.
EN
The paper undertakes to sketch the factors which shape the development of alternative, deriving from the culture of common law, forms of settling legal disputes (ADR – Alternative Dispute Resolution) in the Continental culture (of the constituted law). The literature of the subject popularly includes the following modes in the non-adjudicative (out-of-court) methods of ADR: negotiation-based, mediation-conciliatory and arbitral. The paper points to the phenomena of globalization, proceduralization, and – in particular – to that of convergence of legal cultures and the communication-related vision of law as a cause behind the development of ADR in the culture of constituted law. As it follows from the analysis carried out by the author it is the concept of convergence of cultures, together with the negotiation-communication attitude of participation in the culture, which determine the chances, significance and lines of implementation of the idea concerning out-of-court methods of resolving disputes within the tradition of constituted law.
The Lawyer Quarterly
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2021
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vol. 11
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issue 2
360-380
EN
With the unprecedented occurrence of withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, the uttermost common law country positions itself to the feasibility of reclaiming the once lost opportunities. This article aspires to examine anti-suit injunctions as a measure to protect the will of the contractual parties by issuing of such in the court’s supportive power to the arbitration proceedings. The current stance regarding the anti-suit injunction, as well as the possibility to its overcome is discussed in order to provide arguments against the UK’s accession to the Lugano Convention and in favour of the accession to the Hague Convention. All this is presented to determine whether the UK’s withdrawal from the EU provides for advancement in the favourability of arbitration with its seat in the UK.
EN
This paper focuses on the process of arriving at final judgments in different legal systems of today, such as civil law, common law, and also canon law. In order to better understand this process, the Author presents the historical development of each legal order, highlighting its characteristics, providing selected court judgments, especially the highest courts of a given state. The emphasis is placed on the motivation process so as to satisfy the claims of the parties involved in a judicial dispute. Furthermore, the Author discusses the techniques of logic, represented in every system of positive rules, which favour the discovery of the objective truth. The main purpose of the paper is to find a common denominator for the selected legal systems in terms of judicial proceedings, emphasizing the weight of argumentation and usefulness of logical techniques used towards the discovery of the substantive truth in judicial process and the determination of rights and obligations of parties to a case.
PL
Zamierzeniem niniejszego artykułu jest nakreślenie procesu kształtowania się ostatecznego wyroku sądowego na przykładzie współczesnych systemów prawnych jak civil law, common law wraz z uwzględnieniem prawa kanonicznego. Celem lepszego zrozumienia rozumowego procesu dochodzenia do wyroku sądowego, konieczna była synteza cech charakterystycznych dla każdej z wyżej wymienionych ordynacji prawnych wraz z lekturą wybranych wyroków sądowych, zwłaszcza Najwyższych Trybunałów określonego państwa. Pod uwagę czytelnika został poddany również proces logicznego rozumowania i argumentacji orzeczenia sądowego z uwzględnieniem ram systemowych (sensu largo) każdej ordynacji. Idea rozważań stawia sobie za cel poszukiwania możliwego wspólnego mianownika dla wybranych ordynacji prawnych w kwestii ostatecznego wyroku sądowego, wskazując istotność argumentacji (jak również jej konieczność) i użyteczność technik logicznych w dochodzeniu do odkrycia prawdy materialnej procesu i określenia praw i obowiązków stron po procesie.
EN
The goal of this paper is to evaluate Friedrich August von Hayek’s political philosophy through the prism of the research on the economic efficiency of common law conducted within Law and Economics. One of the assumptions of Hayek’s political philosophy was the thesis about the optimizing character of cultural evolution. According to this thesis legal rules which have arisen spontaneously are economically efficient and thereby do not need to be corrected by the legislator. This thesis was thoroughly analysed by the Law and Economics scholars (notabene not inspired directly by Hayek’s philosophy), and these analyses are critically discussed in this paper. The results of these analyses are not unambiguous; nonetheless, they seem to undermine Hayek’s assumption about the optimizing character of cultural evolution. This fact affects the assessment of Hayek’s normative postulates; in particular, it justifies scepticism towards his critique of legislative activity.
PL
Celem artykułu jest ocena filozofii politycznej Friedricha Augusta von Hayeka przez pryzmat badań nad efektywnością ekonomiczną common law. Jednym z założeń filozofii politycznej Hayeka jest teza o optymalizacyjnym charakterze ewolucji kulturowej. Zgodnie z tą tezą reguły prawne powstałe spontanicznie są ekonomicznie efektywne, nie wymagają więc istotnych korekt ze strony ustawodawcy. Teza ta została poddana dokładnym analizom przez badaczy z nurtu Law and Economics (notabene nie inspirowanych bezpośrednio filozofią Hayeka), których wyniki zostały krytycznie omówione w niniejszym artykule. Konkluzje tych analiz nie są jednoznaczne, niemniej jednak wydają się podważać założenie Hayeka o optymalizacyjnym charakterze ewolucji kulturowej. Rzutuje to w istotny sposób na ocenę postulatów normatywnych Hayeka; w szczególności, uzasadnia sceptycyzm wobec jego krytyki aktywności legislacyjnej.
EN
The way the law regulates marriage and marital relations stems, at least to a certain extent, from the common beliefs of the society concerning these issues. The same can be said of the law of torts, whose norms arise from the social convictions regarding who and to what extent shall bear certain damages, including the fundamental issue of whether such damages should be subject to compensation at all or should they be incurred by the party (at least allegedly) injured. This paper aims to present a brief comparative analysis of the admissibility of seeking monetary compensation for marital infidelity in legal systems close to Poland (German, Austrian), as well as in common law systems, and then present the possible legal grounds for such claims under Polish law, acquis of case-law and legal academics, namely — the claims related to the infringement of personal rights (Article 23, 24 and 448 of the Polish Civil Code). The Polish approach is discussed in the context of a recent landmark Polish Supreme Court decision, where it has been ruled that the abovementioned provisions cannot be construed as to provide monetary relief for non-material damages suffered by betrayed spouses. The authors employ legal comparative and historical methods, supplanted by formal-dogmatic ones, to describe and show the evolution of the law concerning monetary liability for marital infidelity, in light of the statutory law and jurisprudence of Poland.
PL
Sposób, w jaki prawo reguluje małżeństwo i relacje między małżonkami, jest silnie zakorzeniony w powszechnych osądach moralnych dotyczących tych kwestii. Podobnie rzecz się ma z wynagrodzeniem szkody, w wypadku którego zasadniczą rolę odgrywa społeczne przekonanie co do tego, kto, czy i w jakim stopniu powinien ponosić odpowiedzialność za jej wyrządzenie. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu ukazanie możliwości dochodzenia pieniężnej rekompensaty za niewierność małżeńską w perspektywie komparatystycznej, analizując pokrótce możliwości istniejące w tym zakresie zarówno w systemach bliskich polskiemu (niemiecki, austriacki), jak i w systemach common law. W dalszej kolejności prezentowane są potencjalne prawne podstawy dla tego rodzaju roszczeń w prawie polskim, mając na uwadze tezy doktryny i orzecznictwa, w szczególności na gruncie przepisów o ochronie dóbr osobistych (art. 23, 24 i 448 k.c.). Autorzy odnoszą się zwłaszcza do niedawnego wyroku Sądu Najwyższego wyłączającego zastosowanie przepisów o ochronie dóbr osobistych do konstruowania roszczenia o zadośćuczynienie za krzywdę wyrządzoną zdradą małżeńską. Autorzy używają metod komparatystycznej i historycznej, wspartych analizą dogmatyczną, by ukazać ewolucję różnorodność i ewolucję norm dotyczących majątkowej odpowiedzialności za zdradę małżeńską, w szczególności w świetle polskiego prawa i orzecznictwa.
PL
The reception of common law in the United States was stimulated by a very popular and influential treatise Commentaries on the Laws of England by Sir William Blackstone, published in the late 18th century. The work of Blackstone strengthened the continued reception of the common law from the American colonies into the constituent states. Because of the large measure of sovereignty of the states, common law had not exactly developed in the same way in every state. Despite the fact that a single common law was originally exported from England to America, a great variety of factors had led to the development of different common law rules in different states. Albert W. Alschuler from University of Chicago Law School is one of the contemporary American professors of law. The part of his works can be assumed as academic historical-legal narrations, especially those concerning Blackstone: Rediscovering Blackstone and Sir William Blackstone and the Shaping of American Law. Alschuler argues that Blackstone’s Commentaries inspired the evolution of American and British law. He introduces not only the profile of William Blackstone, but also examines to which extent the concepts of Blackstone have become the basis for the development of the American legal thought.
PL
Warunki kontraktowe FIDIC są powszechnie stosowanymi na świecie wzorcami kontraktowymi umów o prace projektowe lub roboty budowlane, mającymi w założeniu ułatwić realizację inwestycji budowlanej dla wszystkich jej uczestników. Praktyka budowlana wielu krajów świata (w tym Polski) chętnie posługuje się tymi powszechnie uznanymi międzynarodowymi standardami, mimo że ich charakter prawny różni się w poszczególnych państwach je stosujących i niejednokrotnie ciężko jest określić, jakie jest miejsce warunków kontraktowych FIDIC w krajowych porządkach prawnych. Nie bez znaczenia jest również pochodzenie tychże wzorców umownych. Kształtowane na przestrzeni lat w Wielkiej Brytanii, wywołują znaczące skutki w postaci swej prawnej odmienności ( jako standardy anglosaskiego systemu common law) wobec kontynentalnego porządku prawnego obowiązującego chociażby w naszym kraju. Nie do końca określone zostały konsekwencje prawne stosowania warunków kontraktowych FIDIC w polskim porządku prawnym, a także interpretacja postanowień ich klauzul (związana z koniecznością tłumaczenia angielskich w oryginale wzorców na język polski) nie jest zadaniem łatwym dla polskich prawników. Mając zatem na uwadze popularność warunków kontraktowych FIDIC w polskiej praktyce budowlanej, warto przeanalizować zagrożenia, jakie wiążą się z ich stosowaniem w kontraktach na prace projektowe lub roboty budowlane.
EN
FIDIC conditions of contract are widely used in the world standards of contractual agreements for design or building works, oriented to facilitate the realization of the construction project for all participants. In many countries (including Poland), construction engineers use these widely recognized international standards willingly, although their legal status differs from country to country and sometimes it is hard to determine what place FIDIC conditions of contract occupy in particular national legal systems. The origin of these contract standards is also significant. Shaped over the years in the UK, the aforementioned standards have significant consequences because of their legal peculiarities (as the standards of the Anglo-Saxon common law system), which make it different from the continental legal system in force even in our country. The legal consequences of using the FIDIC conditions of contract were not specified precisely in the Polish legal system. Similarly, the interpretation of their provisions (which involves the translation of original English standards into Polish) does not constitute an easy task for Polish lawyers. Therefore, in view of the popularity enjoyed by FIDIC conditions of contract in the Polish construction industry, it is relevant to consider the hazards associated with using them in contracts for design or building works.
EN
Cultural aspects of Vuk Karadžić’s family life in the light of his correspondenceThe source material for the study, which is the correspondence between Anna and Vuk Karadžić, spouses coming from different cultures, was used to highlight the issues of legitimacy of the fear of cultural difference of the Orient. The cultural sphere of family life (manifested in particular by the status of the child) becomes herein an excuse to touch upon the question of whether and to what extent the legal system governing family relations in Serbia after the period of the Ottoman rule was different from the civil codes in Western Europe. Kulturologiczne aspekty życia rodzinnego Vuka Karadžicia w świetle jego korespondencji Materiał źródłowy, jakim jest korespondencja Anny i Vuka Karadžiciów, małżonków wywodzących się z odmiennych kręgów kulturowych, posłużył do wydobycia problematyki zasadności lęku „Zachodu” przed odmiennością kulturową Orientu. Sfera kultury życia rodzinnego (manifestowana szczególnie poprzez status dziecka) stanowi w niniejszym tekście pretekst do postawienia pytania o to, czy i w jakiej mierze system prawny regulujący relacje rodzinne w potureckiej Serbii odbiegał od kodeksów cywilnych na Zachodzie Europy.
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Filozofia praw podmiotowych

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EN
Rights are one of the fundamental concepts in philosophy of law, ethics, and political philosophy. However, in Polish language the general research on rights has been neglected. Most of the scholars are concerned with the specific kinds of rights (e.g. human rights, constitutional rights) and not rights as a basic philosophical concept. This article investigates the differences between Polish and English theoretical discourses on rights. It stresses the philosophical importance of this concepts and outlines the crucial issues that have to addressed.
PL
Prawa podmiotowe (ang. rights) są jednym z czołowych pojęć w anglosaskiej filozofii prawa, filozofii politycznej i etyce. Polski dyskurs filozoficzny zajmuje się najczęściej szczegółowymi problemami lub typami praw podmiotowych (prawa człowieka, prawa konstytucyjne), brakuje natomiast refleksji filozoficznej nad prawami podmiotowymi w ogólności. Refleksję taką można odnaleźć w piśmiennictwie cywilistycznym i konstytucjonalistycznym. W artykule wskazano na różnice w polskim i angielskim dyskursie na temat praw podmiotowych, starano się połączyć różne obszary refleksji nad tymi prawami (w szczególności prawa, etyki i polityki) oraz wskazano na ich filozoficzny potencjał i zasadnicze kwestie problemowe.
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