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EN
The aim of the article is to examine the inuflence of institutional investor ownership on real earnings' management (REM) practices through a meta-regression analysis (MRA) based on a sample of 225 estimations from 19 articles. Some of the available research suggests a mitigating role for institutional investors who can serve as external monitors and thus reduce earnings' management activities which could have a negative impact on the company's value. eTh results obtained from the basic model conrfimed neither the hypothesis about the inuflence of institutional ownership on REM, nor the hypothesis about the existence of a signicfiant publication bias. Using an augmented MRA model conclusions in diefrent areas associated with structural and methodological heterogeneity were drawn. Diefrences in the impact of institu tional ownership on real earnings' management in diefrent regions of the world, a de pendence of the results on diefrent data characteristics and diefrences in the results depending on whether the article was published in a top journal or not were found.
EN
Although there are many opinions critical of options, especially after the 2008 scandal, they are becoming increasingly popular in Poland again. Therefore, issues connected with options are not only the subject of interest in academic circles again but also arouse interest of economic entities, allowing enterprises to assess a variety of action strategies. Those instruments enable planning safeguards to protect against various negative future scenarios. Hence, it comes as no surprise that there has been an increase in the number and variety of enterprises that have accepted options as a way to plan for their future. The article provides a brief presentation of options. It also describes one of their pricing methods. Light of the foregoing has been hypothesized that 'valuation of options using mathematical calculators using the binomial model is an effective tool for supporting management positions in futures instruments’.
EN
A non-financial enterprise with receivables or liabilities denominated in a foreign currency is exposed to currency risk. Wanting to calculate a financial reserve in order to secure its receivables or liabilities, an enterprise can introduce the concept of the value at risk. To determine value at risk, an enterprise has to know the probability distribution of the future value of the receivable or the liability for a specific moment in future. Using a geometric Brownian motion to reflect exchange rate changes is among the possible solutions. The aim of the paper is to indicate that using the Monte Carlo simulation for forecasting the currency risk of an enterprise is a clear, easy-to-implement and flexible in terms of the assumptions approach. The flexibility of the Monte Carlo approach relies on the possibility to take up the assumption that the currency position changes caused by currency fluctuations have an other than normal probability distribution.
EN
This paper tackles different issues related to the development of the system of the objectives of a company's financial management that also includes its sustainability. Prior to the recent financial crisis the formulation of the corporate finance management objective focused only on the company’s finances that were reported and measured using the company's profit and its worth growth ratios. The financial crisis has highlighted an additional aspect in corporate management, i.e., a need for the company, as an object of the owners' investment, to generate the economic benefit for a prolonged period of time. For the purpose of formulation of the corporate financial management objective it is appropriate to refer not to a single objective or a set of same-level objectives; a much more expedient approach is a creation of the so-called objective tree integrating the requirements of the entity's going concern. The present article analyses certain factors affecting the financial performance of a company, discusses different ratios facilitating the quantitative effect of the factors upon the final results, and practically applies the management by interference model with a view to ensuring the operations of the company for a sufficiently long time.
EN
The article aims to present the role of the financial director in three different countries (Poland, China, and the US). The role of the financial director was defined by the Model of Competences covering two dimensions and four faces of the CFO. The literature and survey reviews let us think that nowadays the dominant role of the financial director is that of Strategist. The main research question was to find out whether the job of the CFO and his/her main role differs across these countries (Strategist and Catalyst will be dominant in the US, but in other countries Steward and Operator will be dominant). The choice of these countries was not a random one because they have a different history, corporate governance systems and culture. The method which reveals the CEO’s expectations towards the CFO’s duties was applied. The research consisted of a comparative analysis of job advertisements in these countries. The results of this research provide a new description of the CFO’s roles. In each country the main duty of the CFO was Steward (even in the US). In Poland, financial director as Strategist appeared more frequently (than in the other two countries) but was not dominant, either. The research study uses the Model of Competences, which allows to identify whether the CFO is really a strategic position. These findings have important implications for understanding the role of CFOs and their work.
PL
Artykuł zawiera obszerny przegląd i analizę modeli stosowanych w ocenie kondycji finansowej przedsiębiorstw pod kątem widzenia prawdopodobieństwa ich bankructwa. W celu usystematyzowania wiedzy na temat determinant bankructwa firm dokonano metaanalizy modeli predykcyjnych stosowanych w badaniach empirycznych z tego zakresu. Wyróżniono główne grupy czynników uwzględnianych w badaniach upadłości przedsiębiorstw: płynność finansowa, rentowność, produktywność aktywów, zabezpieczenie spłaty długu, dźwignia finansowa, wiek i wielkość firmy. Z dostępnej literatury wybrano 26 studiów poświęconych tej problematyce i zbudowano bazę danych zawierającą informacje o oszacowanych modelach. Stosując współczynnik rang i współczynnik korelacji, analizę wariancji, nieparametryczny test Kruskala-Wallisa oraz regresję tobitową, dokonano oceny wpływu zmiennych objaśniających w poszczególnych badaniach na trafność predykcji opartych na danym modelu. W ocenie porównawczej uwzględniono liczbę zmiennych zawartych w modelu, rodzaj zmiennych objaśniających, metodę estymacji oraz liczebność próby. Na podstawie analizy statystyczno-ekonometrycznej stwierdzono, że rozważane charakterystyki poszczególnych modeli były nieistotne dla dokładności wyprowadzanych z nich prognoz bankructwa.
EN
The paper includes a comprehensive review of the literature and comparative analysis of models used in assessing financial condition of an enterprise from the point of view of bankruptcy prediction. In order to systematize the knowledge of factors underlying firm’s bankruptcy, the authors have carried out a meta-analysis of bankruptcy prediction models applied in empirical research. The main groups of factors considered in bankruptcy research include the following indicators: cash-flow, profitability, asset productivity, debt repayment ability, financial leverage, firm’s age and size. Based on the available stock of studies, the authors have selected 26 papers and constructed a database including information on the estimated models. Using rank correlation, correlation coefficient, variance analysis, non-parametric Kuskal-Wallis test, and tobit regression, they assessed the impact of the explanatory variables considered in individual models on the accuracy of predictions rendered by a given model. In a comparative assessment consideration was given to the number and type of explanatory variables included in the model, estimation method and the sample size. The results of the statistical and econometric analysis suggest that the investigated characteristics of the individual models are not significant for their prediction precision as regards bankruptcy.
XX
В статье содержится обширный обзор и анализ моделей, применяемых при оценке фи- нансового состояния предприятий с точки зрения вероятности их банкротства. С це- лью систематизации знаний на тему детерминант банкротства авторами был проведен мета-анализ моделей прогнозирования, применяемых в эмпирических исследованиях этой проблемы. Были выделены главные группы факторов, появляющихся в исследо- ваниях банкротств предприятий: финансовая рентабельность, эффективность активов, обеспечение погашения кредитов, финансовый рычаг, возраст и величина фирмы. Из доступной литературы было выбрано 26 разработок, посвященных этой проблематике; была построена база данных, содержащая информацию о примененных в них моделях. Авторы использовали коэффициент рангов и коэффициент корреляции, анализ вариа- ции, непараметрический тест Краскала-Уоллиса и регрессию Тобина для анализа влия- ния объясняющих переменных на точность прогноза, рассчитанного по данной модели. В сравнительной оценке было учтено количество переменных, содержащихся в модели, вид объясняющих переменных, метод эстимации и величина пробы. На основе стати- стико-эконометрического анализа было отмечено, что рассматриваемые характеристики отдельных моделей не являются существенными с точки зрения точности сделанных на их основании прогнозов банкротства.
EN
The purpose of the study is to verify the hypothesis holding that the positive effects of exports improve the profitability of businesses. The positive impact of exports on return on equity is confirmed by both a dynamic panel data model and Granger causality test. Calculations were performed for 50 manufacturing companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. The dynamic panel data model was estimated using the Blundell-Bond estimation technique.
EN
One of the main objectives to be accomplished by the European Union law is to eliminate barriers to the functioning of domestic market and in particular improve the competitiveness of enterprises. The paper addresses issues relating to tax in corporate finance. Canons of taxation are discussed and special emphasis is placed on principles behind formulating fiscal law provisions (including the EU law). Furthermore, the article presents the results of surveys into the importance of taxation cannons for Polish companies.
EN
The traditional methods of risk quantification include a sensitivity analysis, a scenario analysis and a historical simulation. The true nature of risk factors changes is ignored in the traditional ‘ceteris paribus’ approach to a sensitivity analysis, hence it can be reflected in a scenario analysis and a historical simulation. The most significant disadvantage of a scenario analysis is the limited number of scenarios, whereas a historical simulation depends on historical data availability and adequacy. The Monte Carlo simulation is a clear answer to the limitations of traditional methods. The changes of risk factors reflected in the Monte Carlo simulation are simultaneous, non-linear and interdependent. The most important aspect of this method is the stage of taking up the assumptions. The purpose of the paper is to indicate that considering several reasonable sets of assumptions for the Monte Carlo simulation simultaneously can bring even more comprehensive information about enterprise risk.
EN
Theoretical background: The capital structure is one of the most important areas in the modern theory of corporate finance. It has inspired the development of a large number of theoretical approaches, but a universally accepted theory of capital structure has not yet been developed. A common belief holds that companies try to achieve a stable capital structure in the long term; thus, companies that, at a given time, are characterised by a relatively low (or high) level of debt, also probably had the same level in previous periods.Purpose of the article: The main purpose of this paper is to provide answers to two basic questions: 1) How did the aggregate capital structure of the non-financial companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) change from 1997 to 2017?; 2) What factors are decisive for the companies’ capital structure and do the current trends in capital structure theory take account of them?Research methods: The research is carried out in two phases. In phase 1, the descriptive statistics method is applied to analyse how the capital structure of WSE-listed companies changed in the years 1997–2017. In phase 2, the capital structure determinants are examined using multiple regression models.Main findings: The capital structure of WSE companies varied significantly in the sample years, and overall, the debt ratios, total, short-, and long-term debt slightly increased. The causes of the changes were the economic environment factors (banking sector assets, government debt, and corporate income tax) and macroeconomic circumstances, along with the companies’ characteristics. Among the latter, the company’s profitability and the share of fixed assets in total assets usually turned out to be statistically significant.
EN
The article investigates one of the still unsolved problems in the theory of corporate finance – what is the value of financial liquidity and to what extent is it determined by external factors originating from the business environment. Based upon the conducted research there has been observed a relationship between the value of financial liquidity and phases of the economic cycle. Differences in the value of liquidity exist between businesses operating on markets with different development level. The research is a significant step towards a detailed analysis of how exogenous factors impact the value of corporate financial liquidity.
PL
Celem artykułu jest wskazanie głównych determinant preferencji prywatnych i publicznych przedsiębiorstw niefinansowych w Polsce w zakresie finansowania długiem. Badanie na dużej próbie przedsiębiorstw za lata 1995–2012 przeprowadzono za pomocą modelu ekonometrycznego. Wśród czynników determinujących strukturę kapitałową zbadano wpływ rentowności, płynności, majątku trwałego, możliwości wzrostu, tarczy podatkowej oraz polityki monetarnej. Wyniki badania potwierdziły, że bardziej rentowne i zdolne do samofinansowania duże przedsiębiorstwa w mniejszym stopniu finansują się kredytem niż małe i średnie przedsiębiorstwa. Niezależnie od wielkości przedsiębiorstwa wraz ze wzrostem płynności maleje dźwignia, co świadczy o skłonności przedsiębiorstw do samofinansowania. Wykazano też bardzo niski wpływ polityki monetarnej, zarówno za pośrednictwem stopy procentowej, jak i kursu walutowego, na decyzje przedsiębiorstw co do sposobu finansowania. Uzyskane wyniki mają pewne znaczenie praktyczne i mogą pomóc bankom dostosować ofertę kredytową do potrzeb małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw. Wyniki analiz potwierdzają, że dostęp do dotacji z UE zmniejszył zapotrzebowanie małych przedsiębiorstw na kredyt, a kryzys finansowy lat 2009–2010 ograniczył finansowanie kapitałem obcym.
EN
The aim of the article is to identify main determinants of the preferences of private and public enterprises in Poland as regard debt financing. The investigation was made with help of an econometric model on a large enterprises sample for the period 1995–2012. Among the factors that determine capital structure, the authors tested the impact of profitability, cash flow, fixed capital, growth potential, tax shield, and monetary policy. The results of the examination confirm that more profitable large firms, able to self-finance their activity, are less dependent on credits as compared with small and medium-size firms. Independently of the firm size, increase in the cash-flow lowers the leverage, which proves enterprise propensity to self-financing. The impact of monetary policy on enterprise decisions about the financing manner was very low, both as regards the influence of interest rates and the impact of exchange rates. The results of this research have some practical significance: these may help the banks better to adjust their credit offer to the needs of small and medium-size enterprises. The results of the analysis also confirm that firms access to EU funding has lowered their demand for credits, and the financial crisis of 2009–2010 has reduced the scale of outside financing.
RU
В статье указываются главные детерминанты, учитываемые при принятии решения о кредитном финансировании частными и публичными нефинансовыми предприяти- ями в Польше. Исследование было проведено с помощью эконометрической модели на большой выборке предприятий и охватывало период 1995–2012 гг. Среди факторов, детерминирующих структуру капитала, особое внимание было уделено влиянию рента- бельности, ликвидности, основных фондов, перспектив роста, налогового щита и мо- нетарной политики. Результаты исследования подтвердили, что более рентабельные и способные к самофинансированию крупные предприятия в меньшей степени прибе- гают к кредитному финансированию, чем малые и средние предприятия. Независимо от объемов предприятия, вместе с ростом ликвидности уменьшается рычаг, что свидетель- ствует о склонности предприятий к самофинансированию. Доказано также очень низкое влияние монетарной политики посредством как процентной ставки, так и валютного курса, на решения предприятий относительно способов финансирования. Полученные результаты имеют некоторое практическое значение и могут помочь банкам создать кре- дитное предложение, отвечающее нуждам малых и средних предприятий. Результаты анализа подтверждают, что доступ к дотациям из ЕС сократил спрос малых предприятий на кредит, а финансовый кризис 2009–2010 гг. ограничил финансирование с помощью иностранного капитала.
EN
A significant element of managing corporate finance is forecasting the financial situation of an enterprise. Forecasting means drawing up simplified financial statements (pro- -forma). One of the basic components of a financial situation forecast is estimating both: fixed asset levels, as well as their depreciation. In a volatile environment, the natural assumption is volatile demand for production capabilities, as a consequence of volatile economic conditions. Furthermore, eventual changes of the production capabilities being the consequence of purchasing and selling fixed assets are not smooth. Taking the above into account, the authors propose the concept of a financial model for forecasting fixed assets and their depreciation. The implementation of the model is also presented using a case study.
EN
Prospective financial analysis is a key decision tool in an enterprise. The traditional approach confronts the forecasted value of a financial category or a financial ratio with a requirement or a standard. Knowing that the particular category or the ratio meets the requirement or the standard is a kind of risk information, but realizing that the requirement or the standard is met with a particular probability level is a detailed image of risk. The aim of the paper is to indicate the possibility to increase the effectiveness of prospective financial analysis by using a Monte Carlo simulation. The biggest advantage of the presented approach (that is in fact the evolution of the traditional scenario approach to risk analysis) is that it delivers the detailed probability distributions of key financial categories and ratios. Shareholders accepting the results of prospective financial analysis with the Monte Carlo simulation should accept risk in a more conscious way than in the case of the traditional approach
EN
Capital structure analysis has dominated modern corporate finance. Determining the way decisions regarding financing are made is a subject of many papers. Nevertheless, there is still a gap in research concerning how to calculate optimal capital structure. Only a few authors tried to provide a closed-form solution of this problem. The purpose of this paper is to show chosen models of determining optimal financing which would maximize market value of a given company. This paper is to be an introduction to further research on described models.
PL
Analiza struktury kapitałowej zdominowała nowoczesne finanse przedsiębiorstw. Określenie tego, w jaki sposób są podejmowane decyzje dotyczące udziałów kapitałów własnych oraz zobowiązań w kapitale jednostek gospodarczych, staje się częstym tematem wielu publikacji. Niemniej lukę w badaniach stanowi nadal sposób wyznaczania optymalnej struktury kapitałowej. Celem niniejszego opracowania jest przedstawienie metod wyznaczania udziałów poszczególnych źródeł finansowania przedsiębiorstwa dla maksymalizacji wartości spółki oraz zaprezentowanie wybranych modeli. Artykuł stanowi wstęp do dalszych badań przedstawionych modeli.
PL
Celem artykułu jest prezentacja wyników badań dotyczących znaczenia i wartości płynności finansowej dla przedsiębiorstw działających w Polsce. Badania wykazały wzrastającą świadomość znaczenia płynności jako czynnika zwiększającego bezpieczeństwo finansowe i- pośrednio- wartość przedsiębiorstwa. Potwierdzono zależność między czynnikami egzogenicznymi a wartością płynności i ryzykiem jej utraty. W okresie dekoniunktury przedsiębiorstwa wyżej wyceniają płynność i są skłonne utrzymywać ją na wyższych poziomach („bufor płynności”) pomimo związanych z tym kosztów. Sektor finansowy podejmuje starania, aby odgrywać jeszcze bardziej aktywną rolę w zarządzaniu płynnością przez przedsiębiorstwa.
EN
The goal of this article is to present the results of a survey focusing on importance and value of financial liquidity for corporate entities in Poland. The survey has confirmed a growing awareness of how financial liquidity impacts financial stability of companies and- as a consequence- their market value. The influence of exogenous factors on the value of liquidity and liquidity risk has been confirmed. In periods of lower economic activity liquidity tends to be valued higher by companies and they are likely to maintain higher levels of liquidity (“liquidity buffer”) related costs. The financial sector aims to play a more active role in corporate financial liquidity management.
PL
Celem niniejszego artykułu jest identyfikacja obszarów działalności przedsiębiorstw niefinansowych wykazujących w swoich sprawozdaniach finansowych instrumenty pochodne oraz analiza wykorzystania tych instrumentów przez wybrane przedsiębiorstwa notowane na giełdzie. Ponadto analizie poddano korelacje pomiędzy wartościami instrumentów pochodnych wykazanych w bilansach tych przedsiębiorstw i wybranymi wielkościami ekonomicznymi je charakteryzującymi. Spośród 199 przedsiębiorstw prowadzących działalność gospodarczą w obszarze zidentyfikowanym na podstawie danych GUS wyselekcjonowano 141 spełniających kolejne kryteria, a mianowicie osiągających roczne przychody powyżej 100 mln zł i sporządzających sprawozdania finansowe według standardów MSSF. Analiza ta została przeprowadzona na podstawie danych pochodzących ze sprawozdań finansowych badanych podmiotów zaczerpniętych z bazy EMIS. Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań zostały porównane z danymi publikowanymi przez GUS.
EN
The purpose of this article is to identify the area of operation of non-financial corporations displaying derivative instruments in their financial statements and to analyze the use of these instruments by selected listed companies. In addition, the analysis included correlations between the value of derivative instruments shown in the balance sheets of these enterprises and selected economic values. Out of 199 enterprises conducting business activity in the area identified on the basis of statistics data, 141 were selected meeting subsequent criteria, including: revenues over PLN 100 million and preparation of financial statements in accordance with IFRS standards in 2016. The analysis was based on data from the financial reports of the surveyed entities taken from the EMIS database. The results of the conducted research were compared with the data published by the Central Statistical Office.
EN
This paper sheds light on the capital structure and the dividend policy of family firms. From a  theoretical point of view it can be shown that agency conflicts in family firms and therefore their financing decisions are affected by family specific factors. Our analysis, however, shows no clear evidence that family influence leads to (1) more or less leverage and (2) higher or lower dividend payments by family firms compared to their non-family  counterparts. The same holds true for empirical studies which present mixed results concerning the leverage and payout propensity of these companies. Finally, factors are addressed which could be held responsible for this ambiguous empirical evidence.
PL
Artykuł rzuca światło na strukturę kapitału i  politykę dywidend firm rodzinnych. Z  teoretycznego punktu widzenia można wskazać, że w  firmach rodzinnych występuje konflikt agencji, ponieważ na ich decyzje finansowe mają wpływ specyficzne czynniki rodzinne. Przedstawiona w  artykule analiza nie dowiodła jednak , że wpływ rodziny oddziałuje na (1) stosowanie większej lub mniejszej dźwigni finansowej ani na (2) wyższe lub niższe dywidendy wypłacane przez firmy rodzinne w  porównaniu do nierodzinnych konkurentów. Podobnie badania empiryczne dały mieszane rezultaty w  odniesieniu do dźwigni finansowej i  skłonności do wypłat w  tych firmach. W  zakończeniu wskazano czynniki, które mogą stanowić przyczynę uzyskiwania tak zróżnicowanych dowodów empirycznych.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono wciąż relatywnie nową w Polsce formę finansowania podmiotów gospodarczych, czyli crowdfunding udziałowy. Celem artykułu jest przybliżenie istoty crowdfundingu udziałowego oraz możliwości wykorzystania crowdfundingu udziałowego w finansowaniu młodych i innowacyjnych przedsiębiorstw w Polsce. Badaniem objęto działające w Polsce platformy crowdfundingu udziałowego oraz przeanalizowano i scharakteryzowano finansowane za ich pośrednictwem spółki. Wyniki przeprowadzonych badań wskazują, że crowdfunding udziałowy znajduje się w Polsce in statu nascendi, nie ma kompleksowych uregulowań prawnych, a liczba podmiotów wykorzystujących tę formę finansowania jest niewielka. Należy jednak zwrócić uwagę na fakt, że przeprowadzone przez spółki kampanie w większości przypadków kończyły się sukcesem, czyli pozyskaniem planowanego kapitału.
EN
The article focuses a relatively new form of financing which is equity crowdfunding. The aim of this article is to present the key point of equity crowdfunding and its use among young enterprises in Poland. The research was conducted among crowdfunding platforms active in Poland, as well as among the companies which had used equity crowdfunding as a financial source. The results of the research indicate that the development level of equity crowdfunding is really low. First of all there is a lack of complex legal regulations. In consequence the number of entities that have used this form of financing is small. However, it should be noted that the campaigns carried out by the companies in most cases ended in success, which is obtaining the planned capital.
20
75%
EN
This paper assumes that managers, investors, or both behave irrationally. In addition, even though scholars have investigated behavioral irrationality from three angles, investor sentiment, investor biases and managerial biases, we focus on the relationship between one of the managerial biases, overconfidence and dividend policy. Previous research investigating the relationship between overconfidence and financial decisions has studied investment, financing decisions and firm values. However, there are only a few exceptions to examine how a managerial emotional bias (optimism, loss aversion and overconfidence) affects dividend policies. This stream of research contends whether to distribute dividends or not depends on how managers perceive of the company’s future. I will use Bayesian network method to examine this relation. Emotional bias has been measured by means of a questionnaire comprising several items. As for the selected sample, it has been composed of some100 Tunisian executives. Our results have revealed that leader affected by behavioral biases (optimism, loss aversion, and overconfidence) adjusts its dividend policy choices based on their ability to assess alternatives (optimism and overconfidence) and risk perception (loss aversion) to create of shareholder value and ensure its place at the head of the management team.
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