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EN
A developing company can obtain capital from two main sources: issuing shares and debt. Both methods have their advantages but also some risk factors. Issuing convertible bonds, a form of hybrid financing, is one way to address the risk. These financial instruments enable a company to decrease its cost of capital while also allowing investors to profit from a conversion premium. Analysis of convertible bonds traded on the Catalyst market shows that the hybrid instruments are the most efficient when the market price of the company is low and issuing shares might not bring about the desired results. Moreover, additional rights incorporated into convertible bonds enable the company to decrease the coupon rate and costs of issuing debt.
EN
Private bond market developed in Poland since the early 90’s of the twentieth century, in the case of the Warsaw Stock Exchange in 2009, the market for bond trading was carried out in most cases, the wholesale market for OTC. September 30, 2009 it was decided to create the Catalyst bond market. This market gives you the opportunity to invest their investments in securities with much less risk than stocks and entrepreneurs can raise funds for the development and diversification of funding sources. In the case of the bond market Catalyst platform combines the features of a  regulated market and alternative trading system, the offer is addressed to individual investors and institutional. The purpose of this article is to show the processes taking place in the Polish financial market in the area of financing to commercial entitiesusing corporate bonds and corporate bond analysis (excluding banks and mortgage bonds) listed on the Catalyst market, thereby determining the cost of financing the company, depending on the individual characteristics of the debt instrument.
PL
Artykuł nie zawiera abstraktu w języku polskim
PL
Celem artykułu jest porównanie rentowności finansowej w sektorach niefinansowych w Polsce mierzonej z wykorzystaniem zysku netto oraz zysku rezydualnego. Ponieważ o poziomie rentowności decydują m.in. struktura i koszt kapitału, przeprowadzono analizę poziomu zadłużenia i średnioważonego kosztu kapitału, a także dokonano oceny ryzyka finansowego poszczególnych sektorów z wykorzystaniem odchylenia standardowego. Porównanie wskaźnika rentowności operacyjnej majątku i oprocentowania kapitałów obcych pozwoliło ustalić rodzaj efektu dźwigni finansowej w poszczególnych sektorach niefinansowych.
EN
The paper aims at comparing financial profitability of non-financial sectors in Poland measured by means of net profit and residual profit. As the structure and the cost of capital decide about the profitability level, the paper also attempts to analyze the level of debt and the weighted average cost of capital. The paper also assesses a financial risk of particular sectors by applying a standard deviation. The comparison of operational profitability of assets and interest of borrowed capital leads to establishing the type of leverage effect in particular non-financial sectors.
EN
The aim of this paper is to present the method for estimating the cost of capital of typical portfolios available on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. The authors introduce the three factor Fama-French model and its two modifications. They also apply the bootstrap method to evaluate the variability of their estimation method. The cost of capital they refer to is related to portfolios of real options linked to projects. The market returns are generated both by stock companies running such projects and by real options modifying selected projects. The estimated cost of capital can serve as a valuable indicator for investors and for managers overseeing portfolios of stocks. Also, such an indicator can serve as a general reference while making business decisions related to new. The study demonstrated that the estimated cost of capital assumes highest values for value portfolios and stock companies with high financial indicators and, at the same time, low market prices compared to their book value. By the same token, the estimated cost of capital assumes low values for growth portfolios and for stock companies characterised by low financial indicators and, at the same time, high market prices compared to their book values.
EN
We examine the components of equity returns on the Polish capital market. To analyse the underlying complexity of returns we took into consideration the model designed by Leibowitz (1999). This model captures three factors: dividend yield, expected growth in earnings and expected change in price-to-earnings (PE) ratio. We applied this model to analyse the average discount/premium not only to particular shares but to market averages as well. Firstly, we examined the variation of PE across the companies (as adapted from Penman (1996)) to analyse the average rate of return and their striking distance of individual stocks from a ‘normal’ level. Then we checked the transitory earnings in the portfolios of high PE, whereby a fall in current earnings relative to sustainable level of earnings leads to a transitory high PE ratio. We expect that the effect of transience in current year earnings can be significant. Lastly, we analysed the individual companies in order to check what percentage of companies give a “correct” signal about future prospects.
Oeconomia Copernicana
|
2016
|
vol. 7
|
issue 2
317-329
EN
Financial management in a company is a decision process subject to achievement of the main goal of the company, that is its value maximization. Estimation of the cost of capital is of great significance in this area. The cost of capital affects the key decisions of the board concerning the scale of investment undertakings, determination of the target, demanded amount and pace of capital growth, shaping of optimal capital structure and other areas of financial management in a company such as capital budgeting, processes of takeovers and fusions etc. It is also a parameter in calculating the return on investment and in other analyses. The utilization of information about the cost of capital in the decision-making process in the company is strictly connected with the assessment of financial management in the company using market value added. The objective of the paper is to indicate the place of the cost of capital in assessing the effectiveness of financial management in a company, performed by the method of market value added. The considerations conducted are grounded on the assumption that if we base the effectiveness assessment of financial management in a company on the market value added growth, then the cost of capital will be one of the main parameters in each of the theoretical models presented concerning the company value pricing. In this way, the cost of capital is a parameter in the effectiveness assessment of financial management in a company at the same time. The article is of theoretical-cognitive and methodological character. It constitutes a reason for further empirical research confirming the relation proved in the theory of the relation between the cost of capital and company value, which is a basis for assessing the effectiveness of financial management in the company.
EN
The article deals with the valuation of equity, in particular of shares that cannot be valued on the basis of market data. The clean surplus model is one of the models that allows the valuation of shares that are not marketable. The article presents the role of accounting and theoretical foundations, as well as the concept and assumptions of the clean surplus model. The model is related to financial research. In addition, the model can be used to confirm the reliability of the figures.
XX
The paper presents research findings concerning financial efficiency in the context of capital concentration in the economy. The research was based on farm data collecting information on accounting for 2004-2011. The research shows that returns, obtained by farms more intensively gathering capital, are below the weighted average cost of capital.
EN
The key decisions made by a managing director should always be based on the analysis of the enterprise’s requirements and financial possibilities. Without this knowledge, some investments could face the serious risk of failure. Many forms of raising capital allow investment aims to be tailored so as to be adequately implemented. Moreover, the selected method should coincide with the company’s economic situation. Thanks to today’s constant development of the capital markets and global free cash flow, the stock exchange has become one of the best alternative ways of raising capital. The paper presents the numerous positive and negative aspects of the IPO with consideration of the cost of raising capital and corporate policy. It is based on data on IPOs from the Warsaw Stock Exchange in the years 2005–2010.
EN
The classical approach to the SML assumes that it is a straight line, which means that an investor is willing to accept lower return on the negative beta assets than on the risk-free assets. However, Cloninger, Waller, Bendeck and Revere (2004) challenged this commonly accepted approach. The author of the paper decided to verify the approach using empirical data for years 1999-2006 obtained from the Warsaw Stock Exchange. Finance theoreticians believe that the SML is linear, which means that an investor buying negative beta assets is willing to accept lower return than in the case of a risk-free asset. Cloninger et al. (2004) formulated a hypothesis stating that the SML is V-shaped and that it is not a straight line. It was concluded that an investor had no reason to accept lower return of the negative beta assets; quite the contrary, the investor would expect the same return as on the positive beta ones. The author of this article performed an investigation for the Polish market, taking advantage of companies quoted at the Warsaw Stock Exchange. The investigation demonstrated that between 1999 and 2006, the SML had a V-like shape and thus the research hypothesis formulated in the article was positively verified.
11
88%
EN
The purpose of the paper is to provide some support to the thesis that insurance may reduce the cost of capital in a company by influencing both the cost of capital components and the need for rising capital. The problem is here perceived from two perspectives – the classical concept related to the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) and a novel concept related to the risk-based capital structure model with the total average cost of capital (TACC). The paper explains the idea of insurance as a retrospective (post-loss) risk financing tool and the risk transfer mechanism upon it. As the risk financing tool insurance reduces the need for the balance-sheet capital in a company and thus the financial distress costs. Also, insurance may reduce the level of operating risk and thus influences the required returns of the capital providers. These observations allow emphasising the impact of insurance on the WACC. However, according to the novel concept of the risk-based capital structure, insurance (as a risk financing tool) represents an off-balance sheet capital component. As a consequence, it extends the volume of total capital. The presented conceptual model, based on the TACC concept, indicates that large volume of insurance (the insurance sum) and its relatively low cost (the insurance premium) gives the possibility to the significant reduction of the cost of capital on average. The concluding remarks discuss some dilemmas over the utility of the TACC concept.
EN
This article presents the estimates of effective tax rates on investment at corporate level in Republic of Macedonia in the period from 2006 to 2012. In addition to accomplishing this research, 3 basic and most commonly applied indicators of the corporate income tax (CIT) burden will be used. They are the cost of capital, the effective marginal tax rate (EMTR) and the effective average tax rate (EATR), according to the Devereux-Griffith methodology. The results of the analysis will clearly show that the implemented domestic tax policy reform have transformed this country into one of the most, if not the most tax favorable country for investment in Europe.
EN
Economic security of the country depends on participation in international trade of innovative solutions, patents, know-how, new technologies and products resulting from the use of advanced technologies. Research and development are the cornerstone of the elements of international exchange that can provide long-term economic security. In this case enterprises and their willingness to spend on research and development play a key role. Innovation is a basic element of competitive advantage, both qualitative as well as cost and information. Polish entrepreneurs get very good results thanks to the unified European market. The advantage initially concerned low wages, and then, with aid funds, was based on acquired technologies. The next step is to enter the realm of research and development. This is a new challenge for Polish companies. It involves the risk of research on the one hand and, on the other, the high cost of capital. This cost of capital should be minimized – with State aid in the form of grants or guarantees for money providers.
PL
Bezpieczeństwo ekonomiczne kraju zależy od udziału w handlu międzynarodowym rozwiązaniami innowacyjnymi, patentami, know-how, nowymi technologiami oraz produktami powstającymi w wyniku stosowania zaawansowanych technologii. Badania i rozwój są podstawą tych elementów wymiany międzynarodowej, które mogą zapewnić długotrwałe bezpieczeństwo ekonomiczne. Zasadniczą rolę odgrywają w tym przypadku przedsiębiorstwa i ich gotowość do ponoszenia nakładów na badania i rozwój. Innowacje stanowią podstawowy element przewagi konkurencyjnej, zarówno jakościowej, jak i kosztowej i informacyjnej. Polscy przedsiębiorcy uzyskują bardzo dobre wyniki dzięki jednolitemu rynkowi europejskiemu. Przewaga początkowo dotyczyła niskich kosztów płac, następnie dzięki funduszom pomocowym bazowała na nabywanych technologiach. Kolejny krok to wejście w sferę badań i rozwoju. To jest nowe wyzwanie dla polskich przedsiębiorstw. Wiąże się z jednej strony z ryzykiem badań, a z drugiej strony – wysokim kosztem kapitału. Ten koszt kapitału powinien być minimalizowany dzięki pomocy państwa w formie dotacji czy gwarancji dla dostarczycieli pieniądza
PL
Celem artykułu była krytyczna analiza wybranych czynników instytucjonalnych oddziałujących na koszt kapitału przedsiębiorstw. W artykule przedstawiono uwarunkowania teoretyczne dotyczące kosztu kapitału, najważniejsze metody ustalania kosztu kapitału oraz zależności między ryzykiem a kosztem kapitału. Omówiono wybrane czynniki instytucjonalne oddziałujące na koszt kapitału przedsiębiorstw. Za najważniejsze czynniki instytucjonalne uznano systemy prawne, rozwój giełd papierów wartościowych i sektora bankowego oraz jakość standardów rachunkowości. Podstawową metodą badawczą zastosowaną w opracowaniu była analiza literatury przedmiotu.
EN
The article presents and critically analyses selected institutional factors affecting the cost of capital for enterprises. The paper presents the theoretical determinants of the cost of capital, the most important methods of determining this cost, and the relationship between it and risk. Selected institutional factors affecting the cost of capital were analysed. Legal systems, the development of stock exchanges, the development of the banking sector and the quality of accounting standards were recognised as the most important institutional factors. Analysis of the subject literature was the basic research method employed.
EN
The optimal level of reserve assets varies widely depending on the specifics of the economy’s exposure to and tolerance of external shocks, which explains different reserve assets needs also among economies with similar levels of economic development. Therefore, the level of reserve assets should be considered as a safe level, if it creates sustained reduction in the investor’s risk premium, thereby providing easier and cheaper access to external financing of debt and development, enhancing growth prospects and boosting investment. A scenario analysis of the need for reserve assets in Poland in the years 2004–2015 done in the case of an external shock resulting in a decrease in exports, a partial flight of foreign portfolio investment and the bank-related outflows from Polish banking sector dominated by foreign-owned institutions, confirms the sensitivity of the Polish economy to external shocks and explains its lower credibility and higher cost of capital as compared with other countries of Central and Eastern Europe.
PL
Optymalny poziom aktywów rezerwowych różni się dalece w zależności od specyfiki ekspozycji gospodarki na zewnętrzne szoki i ich tolerancji, co tłumaczy zróżnicowane zapotrzebowanie na aktywa rezerwowe także wśród gospodarek o zbliżonym poziomie rozwoju gospodarczego. Dlatego, jako bezpieczny poziom aktywów rezerwowych, należy uznać taką ich wysokość, która wywołuje trwałe obniżenie premii za ryzyko, oczekiwanej przez inwestorów, a tym samym zapewnia łatwiejszy i tańszy dostęp do zewnętrznych źródeł finansowania zadłużenia i rozwoju, poprawiając tym perspektywy wzrostu gospodarczego i wzmagając inwestycje. Przeprowadzona scenariuszowa analiza zapotrzebowania na aktywa rezerwowe w Polsce w latach 2004–2015 w sytuacji wystąpienia szoku zewnętrznego skutkującego spadkiem wpływów z eksportu, częściowym odpływem zagranicznego względnie ruchliwego kapitału portfelowego i wycofaniem części środków przez macierzyste banki zagraniczne potwierdza wrażliwość polskiej gospodarki na zewnętrzne szoki i po części tłumaczy niższą na tle regionu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej rynkową wycenę wiarygodności i w konsekwencji wyższy rynkowy koszt kapitału.
PL
Celem niniejszego opracowania jest przedstawienie metod wyboru źródeł finansowania przedsiębiorstwa i wskazanie miar oraz ich interpretacji, które wspomagają zarządzaniem gospodarką magazynową, gotówką oraz polityką należności, by utrzymać strukturę kapitałów na optymalnym poziomie. Do celów analizy posłużono się projektem inwestycyjnym, będącym spółką kapitałową prowadzącą działalność prognozowaną przez6 pierwszych lat. Wskazano składniki kapitałów własnych oraz kapitałów obcych, uzasadniając ich wybór wyliczeniami i podkreślając, iż decyzje te zawsze należy dostosować do specyficznych potrzeb przedsiębiorstwa. Opisano także walory kapitałów pod względem ryzyka związanego z obsługą długu, zachowaniem płynności, powiększeniem udziału w rynku oraz racjonalizacji kosztów. Znajomość struktury i kosztu kapitału zwiększa wartość firmy, poprzez wzrost wartości bieżącej przepływów pieniężnych netto generowanych z aktywów przedsiębiorstwa.
EN
The aim of this paper is to present methods of the selection of financing businesses sources and indication measure and their interpretation, which support the management of inventory, cash and receivables policy to maintain a capital structure at an optimal level. The study was based on the investment project, which is a capital company conducting business projected for the first 6 years. Indicated components of equity and debt capital, justifying their choice of calculations and insisting that those decisions should always be adapted to the specific needs of the enterprise. Also describes the qualities of capital in terms of the risks associated with debt management, maintaining liquidity, enlargement market share and cost rationalization. Knowledge of the capital structure and capital cost increases the goodwill, by an increase in the present value of net cash flows generated from the assets of the company.
EN
The article discusses the theoretical concept of the cost of capital as well as the practical aspects of using information about the cost of capital in managing companies. The author also reviews the results of a survey among Polish companies on the cost of capital in decision-making processes. The cost of capital plays an important role in calculating the economic value of the company and its components as well as in measuring the net present value of investment projects. The cost of capital makes it possible to convert future expected cash flows from assets into the present value of these assets. Future cash flows are discounted using the cost of capital as a discount rate. The importance of the cost of capital in managing companies largely depends on to what extent companies use economic value based on discounted cash flows. Comparing the actual rate of return on invested capital with the weighted average cost of capital makes it possible to find out whether the company creates economic value added (EVA). The results of the survey carried out among Polish companies indicate that the concept of the cost of capital is understood in different ways. Only about half the surveyed companies use data on the cost of capital in feasibility studies, valuation, in the choice of sources of financing and in the evaluation of their own performance (for example, in EVA calculation).
PL
W artykule przedstawiono pojęcie kosztu kapitału w przedsiębiorstwie od strony teoretycznej oraz praktyczne aspekty wykorzystania informacji o nim w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwami. Zaprezentowano także wyniki badania ankietowego polskich spółek handlowych dotyczącego roli kosztu kapitału w podejmowaniu decyzji w przedsiębiorstwie. Koszt kapitału ma zasadnicze znaczenie dla wyceny wartości ekonomicznej całego przed-iębiorstwa lub jego poszczególnych części oraz oceny wartości bieżącej netto projektów inwestycyjnych. Umożliwia on bowiem przekształcenie przyszłych przepływów pieniężnych netto spodziewanych z danych aktywów w wartość bieżącą tych aktywów. Koszt kapitału jest wykorzystywany jako stopa dyskontowa przy aktualizowaniu przyszłych przepływów pieniężnych. Jego rola w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwem jest w dużej mierze uzależniona od zakresu wykorzystywania przez nie wyceny wartości ekonomicznej opartej na metodzie zdyskontowanych przepływów pieniężnych. Porównanie zrealizowanej stopy zwrotu z kapitału zainwestowanego w przedsiębiorstwie ze średnim ważonym kosztem tego kapitału pozwala ocenić, czy przedsiębiorstwo jest zdolne do tworzenia wartości dodanej (miernik EVA). Na podstawie wyników badania ankietowego można stwierdzić, że pojęcie kosztu kapitału jest interpretowane w polskich przedsiębiorstwach nie zawsze w ten sam sposób. Ponadto, informacje o koszcie kapitału są wykorzystywane jedynie w około połowie ankietowanych spółek, głównie w zakresie oceny opłacalności projektów inwestycyjnych, wyceny wartości przedsiębiorstwa lub składników jego aktywów, wyboru źródeł finansowania oraz oceny wyników działalności przedsiębiorstwa (np. obliczanie EVA).
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