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EN
The study constitutes an attempt to join the discussion about the importance of assessing convergence in the process of enlargement of European monetary union and it focuses on the comparative aspect of the degree of similarity of Polish economy in relation to the euro area and of countries that are already part of the single currency area. The aim of the article is to present the results of the indicator analysis of real convergence, which unlike the nominal one, gives a fuller picture of the desirability of state’s participation in the monetary union. These results, on the one hand, allow to draw certain conclusions regarding Poland and supporting the process of choosing the date of adoption of the euro, and on the other hand, help to determine if during the post-crisis period there occurred tendencies indicating an increase of the degree of similarity of economies already using the common currency. The research related, apart from Poland, to selected euro zone member states: France, Greece, Spain, the Netherlands, Ireland, Lithuania, Germany, Slovakia and Italy. For the purpose of the study, it was accepted that an appropriately broad selection of indicators, allowing to achieve the necessary objectivity degree of assessment of countries’ real convergence in relation to the entire euro area, would consist of: growth rate of real GDP and correlation coefficients relating to this measure, GDP per capita as a determinant of income, GDP per hour worked as an indicator of labour productivity, hourly labour costs, level of long-term unemployment, structure of gross value added, changes in the real exchange rate, long-term real interest rate and real money market rate (which, at the same level of the nominal short-term interest rate in the euro zone, is determined in each member state by the prices’ level growth rate). As the research period the years of 2004-2014 were adopted. The conducted indicator analysis of real convergence allowed to formulate a number of observations: the degree of similarity of the analysed economies to the whole monetary union is different in most cases, depending on which sphere is related to a measure; the scale of convergence of individual economies in relation to the euro zone also varies; in respect of the analysed countries, it is difficult to notice a trend towards deepening the scale of convergence in the post-crisis period; in the case of Poland, one should not rather talk about the similarity, but about far-reaching real divergences in relation to the euro zone, which result in postponing a reasonable moment to adopt the common currency.
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EN
We analyze the correlation between the European integration and incorporating Germany into the process of European cooperation. We point out that the European integration after WWII was determined by the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in the year 1951. This Community made it possible to control the steel industry of the Member States (among them Germany) within the framework of the common market. It was aimed at stable and harmonized development, as well as at preventing an uncontrolled growth of military-industrial complex, increasing the production for the army and decreasing the probability of the outbreak of the next war. Then - after the deepening of cooperation (taking her new areas) – the European Communities (EC) were created. They are still institutional foundations of the EU. One of the main reasons of the EC creation was the willingness to ensure lasting peace in Europe and to create „security community” through a.o. incorporation of Germany into the group of cooperating states. In this paper, we analyze the security system components created (e.g.) by the EC/EU, as well as the origin and changes of their characteristics. We compare the process of German unification (and more general: of defining the German unity, and broader: unity of the German speaking territory) after WWI and WWII. The analysis of similarities and differences leads us to the present stage of the European integration, when the unification of two German states was accomplished for the price of German acceptance of deepening of the integration and the creation of the European monetary union. We analyze various consequences of unification of Germany and the creation of the euro zone. In our opinion, they go far beyond the economic or political ones, and are connected with the EU Eastern enlargement.
EN
Our objective has been to measure an impact of the two main global currencies - Euro and USD on shaping of exchange rates in countries of Central Europe. We have also endeavored to measure whether and to what extent a different approach to the Euro introduction as well as differentiated macroeconomic situation of these countries influenced the behavior of their exchange rates. The hitherto analyses indicate that the PLN rate of exchange was until 2004 strongly tied to the USD, but since 2004 links with the EUR exchange rate have become stronger. However the exchange rates of other countries in the region had been tied to the EUR earlier than the PLN exchange rate as they already had strong such links in the whole period of our analysis. Currency integration of the Central European countries is very strong although they are formally outside the euro zone and formation of their exchange rates should be perceived through trends of the EUR exchange rate versus other currencies, the USD.
EN
The paper's objective is to present the results of an analysis of the exchange rate convergence criterion fulfilment by the European Union member states which still use their national currencies and the indication of the fundamental determinants that affect their ability to meet it. There is essential legislation on this criterion indicated, as well as on the ERM2 system which is directly related to it, and the stability of the currencies of EU countries is also briefly examined. The major conclusions include the statement that the interpretation of legal provisions on the exchange rate convergence crite rion allows large subjectivity in assessing its fulfilment by each country. On the other hand, significant fluctuations in exchange rates during recent years, can impede considerably their stabilisation prior to the accession to the euro area and extend the necessary stay in ERM2 system, which in turn will in crease the risk of speculation connected with it. Therefore, justified to a certain extent may seem pro posed abolition of the obligation to formal accession to ERM2 and replacing it with a quantitative criterion related solely to exchange rate fluctuations.
PL
W artykule przedstawiono etapy tworzenia jednowalutowego obszaru euro w Europie. Kraje tworzące strefę euro spełniły określone w Traktacie z Maastricht kryteria ekonomiczne. Posługiwanie się tą samą walutą wymaga również odpowiednich dostosowań prawnych oraz instytucjonalnych. Jednolity pieniądz oznacza prowadzenie wspólnej polityki monetarnej. W tym celu utworzono Europejski Bank Centralny odpowiedzialny za stabilizację wartości pieniądza na terenie strefy euro. Artykuł charakteryzuje efekty wynikające z utworzenia obszaru euro. Polska od wielu lat konsekwentnie realizuje proces dostosowania gospodarki pozwalający na wejście do mechanizmu ERM II i w perspektywie zastąpienie złotego przez euro.
EN
The article introduced same stages of creating one-currency area of euro in Europe. The countries included into the euro zone have fulfilled the conditions determined by the economic criteria of the Treaty of Maastricht. Using the same currency also requires suitable legal as well as institutional adjustments. Single currency means developing common monetary policy. Aiming at this, the European Central Bank has been created, which is responsible for the stability of the value of money in euro zone. The article characterizes effects resulting from creating the area of euro. For many years Poland has consistently been realizing the process of adaptation to ERM II and in the future exchanging zloty into euro.
EN
Theoretical background: The article examines the microeconomic and macroeconomic determinants of credit risk in the European Union countries divided into two groups: countries that own the euro and countries outside the euro area.Purpose of the article: This study is to identify differences in the shaping of credit risk in the EU depending on the country's affiliation to the monetary union.Research methods: The statistical survey made it possible to identify significant differences between the mean values of the analyzed variables, and the econometric survey made it possible to identify differences in the determinants of credit risk in the two analyzed groups of countries. The study consisted of examining the occurrence of differences between the means for the collected variables and making the models using the GMM system.Main findings: Differences in the influence of macroeconomic factors on the credit risk of euro area countries and other European Union countries were shown. The main difference concerns the insensitivity of credit risk of euro area countries to changes in the foreign currency exchange rate, as well as the significant impact of inflation and unemployment on the credit risk of these countries.
PL
Celem artykułu jest syntetyczne przedstawienie problematyki związanej z kryzysem w Grecji. Artykuł koncentruje się wokół trzech głównych zagadnień: przyczyn kryzysu, który rozpoczął się w 2009 r., pomocy udzielonej Grecji przez tzw. trójkę (Komisja Europejska, Europejski Bank Centralny i Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy) w celu wyjścia z kryzysu oraz analizie scenariuszy dalszego rozwoju sytuacji w tym kraju. Do przyczyn tego kryzysu zaliczono zarówno słabe strony greckiej gospodarki, jak również uwarunkowania wynikające z przynależności tego kraju do strefy euro. Dotychczasowa pomoc finansowa i wdrożone programy oszczędnościowe w Grecji okazały się nieskuteczne. Wśród możliwych scenariuszy dalszego rozwoju wydarzeń znalazły się: wyjście Grecji ze strefy euro, restrukturyzacja długu tego kraju oraz wprowadzenie systemu „alternatywnego pieniądza”.
EN
The aim of the article is to present in a synthetic way the issues related to the crisis in Greece. The article focuses on three major issues: the causes of the crisis which began in Greece in 2009, the financial aid granted to the country by the Troika (European Commission, European Central Bank and International Monetary Fund) with the intention to help Greece to emerge from the crisis, and the scenarios of future development of the economy. Among the main causes of the crisis are both: the weaknesses of the Greek economy and the conditions of participation in the euro zone. The financial help for Greece and the austerity programs proved to be ineffective. Among the possible scenarios for Greece are: exit from the euro zone, the country’s debt restructuring, and the introduction of the ‘alternative money system’.
PL
Opracowanie zostało poświęcone problematyce zarządzania gospodarczego strefą euro. Międzynarodowy kryzys finansowy uwydatnił bowiem słabość konstrukcji unii gospodarczej i walutowej. Niewykluczone jest, iż dalsze istnienie strefy będzie zależne od wypracowania przez kraje członkowskie optymalnych ścieżek realizacji koniecznych reform. Celem opracowania jest prezentacja procesu ewolucji narzędzi zarządzania gospodarczego w strefie euro, w warunkach kryzysu. W ciągu ostatnich czterech lat państwa członkowskie oraz struktury instytucjonalne Unii Europejskiej podjęły szereg, często bezprecedensowych, działań mających na celu ratowanie gospodarek strefy euro. Przyczyniło się to do zwiększenia stopnia komplikacji zasad polityki fiskalnej i monetarnej. Co więcej, nadal nie ma pewności, czy wypracowane instrumenty przeciwdziałania kryzysom będą w stanie uchronić strefę euro od kolejnego załamania.
EN
The study regards the issue of the euro zone’s economic governance. The international financial crisis highlighted the weakness of the construction of the economic and monetary union. It is conceivable that further existence of the euro zone will depend on whether the member states manage to find optimal ways to carry out necessary reforms. The aim of this paper is to present the evolution process of the tools used for the EU economic governance under the conditions of crisis. In the last four years, the Member States and institutional structures of the European Union have taken a number of, frequently unprecedented, actions aimed at saving the economies of the euro zone. This has contributed to increased complexity of the principles of fiscal and monetary policy. What is more, it is still not certain if the available instruments for crisis prevention will protect the euro zone from another economic meltdown.
EN
In spite of the fact that the reception of a single currency is imposed as part of the duties resulting from membership in the UE, none of the states which entered the UE in 2004 and 2007 accepted the Euro on the day of their accession. It resulted from the obligation to satisfy the criteria of convergence determined in the treaty on functioning of the UE. At present 17 out of the 27 UE member-states belong to the Euro zone. Poland, as one of the countries entering the UE in the framework of the expansion of 2004 and 2007 is therefore obliged to replace its currency with the Euro. However, the deadline for this project is relatively flexible. Apart from the legal and economic criteria of convergence, there is also a need for carrying out peculiar and efficient steps of the practical nature. They are supposed to help citizens of the member states that joined the Euro zone to adjust themselves to the new legal and factual situation. Those practical steps concern, among others, determination of the relevant period of mandatory dual display of prices. This treatment is to counteract the negative impact of the introduction of the Euro with reference to prices. A very important element in the process of preparing for membership in the Euro zone is to provide banks, traders and retailers with the Euro cash. This usually happens within the last two or three months before the planned introduction of the Euro. It is also important to carry out an appropriate information campaign. At the initial stage, it should be relatively general in nature and subject to a gradual intensification as we approach the date of introduction of the Euro.
EN
Last fi nancial crisis has prompted institutional changes in European Union. As euro zone countries were the most severely experienced by the turmoils new institutional solutions adopted after 2010 particularly referred to euro zone economies. The aim of the article is the analysis of macroeconomic imbalance procedure with regard to innovation of the approved solutions and their effi ciency of re-establishing macroeconomic stability. Analytical research is based on EU regulations on prevention and correction of macroeconomic imbalances and on enforcement measures to correct excessive macroeconomic imbalances in the euro area.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia w skrócie ewolucję amerykańskiego federalizmu fiskalnego i odnosi ją do aktualnej sytuacji w Europie. Rekonstrukcja najważniejszych elementów konstytuujących unię amerykańską pozwala wyciągnąć wnioski istotne z punktu widzenia obecnej fazy procesu integracji europejskiej. Rozważania prowadzone są w kontekście teorii federalistycznych. W zakończeniu sformułowano kilka postulatów badawczych, wskazując dziedziny wymagające głębszych badań, szczególnie w kontekście dynamicznie zmieniającej się sytuacji w unii gospodarczej i walutowej oraz w Unii Europejskiej w ogóle.
EN
The goal of the presented article is to describe and explain the key elements of the evolution of the fiscal federalism in America, with reference to the present situation in Europe. Reconstructing the most important points constituting the foundations of the American union enables to take lessons for the current phase of the European integration process. The deliberations are contextualised in the federalist theoretical thoughts. The text concludes with some research postulates, pointing new and emerging areas requiring scientific penetration, especially in the context of the dynamically changing Economic and Monetary Union, as well as the European Union as such.
PL
W pracy traktujemy konkurencyjność międzynarodową (ang. International Competitiveness - IC) jako katalizator produktywności. Zbudowaliśmy teoretyczny model rozwoju gospodarczego, w którym IC wchodzi w interakcję z klasycznymi czynnikami produkcji. Model ujawnia, że składowe IC zwiększają produktywność, ale nie zużywają się w trakcie interakcji z czynnikami produkcji. Wykazaliśmy również, że korzyści kraju z IC zależą zarówno od poziomu IC, jak również poziomu kapitału na pracownika. Oszacowano parametry modelu teoretycznego, korzystając z danych panelowych dla krajów strefy euro w latach 2006-2011.
EN
In the paper, we treat international competitiveness (IC) as a catalyst of productivity. We build a theoretical model of economic development where IC interacts with classical factors of productivity. The model shows that the components of IC enhance a nation’s productivity but they are not consumed when interacting with production factors. We also show that a country’s productivity gain due to IC depends both on the IC level and the level of physical capital per worker. We estimate the theoretical model using panel data euro zone countries in the years 2006-2011.
PL
Zgodnie z art. 4 Traktatu Akcesyjnego w Atenach z 16 kwietnia 2003 r. Polska jako państwo członkowskie Unii Europejskiej ma status kraju z „derogacją” w rozumieniu art. 139 Traktatu o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej, czyli z obowiązkiem przystąpienia do obszaru wspólnej waluty euro. Wcześniej czy później obowiązek wejścia do strefy euro zostanie wobec Polski zoperacjonalizowany oraz zostanie podany przedział czasu, w którym Polska zostanie zobowiązana do wypełnienia kryteriów konwergencji nominalnej i prawnej, a także do wejścia do strefy euro. Artykuł jest poświęcony kryteriom konwergencji prawnej, takim jak zgodność ustawodawstwa krajowego z art. 130 i 131 Traktatu o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej, ze Statutem Europejskiego Systemu Banków Centralnych (w szczególności z art. 7, 12, 14 i 37) i Statutem Europejskiego Banku Centralnego oraz zagadnieniom związanym z przygotowaniem krajowego systemu prawnego do wprowadzenia euro jako prawnego środka płatniczego. Celem rozważań jest zbadanie stanu gotowości krajowych struktur prawnych i instytucjonalnych do wejścia Polski do strefy euro oraz określenie obszarów, które wymagają jeszcze dostosowania do przepisów Traktatu o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej oraz Statutu Europejskiego Systemu Banków Centralnych i Europejskiego Banku Centralnego.
EN
According to Art. 4 of the Treaty of Accession in Athens of 16 April 2003, Poland as a member state of the European Union has the status of a country with”derogation” within the meaning of Art. 139 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, i.e. with the obligation to join the euro area. Sooner or later, the obligation to enter the euro zone will be operationalised to Poland and a time period will be given, in which Poland will be required to meet the criteria of nominal and legal convergence, as well as to enter the euro area. The article is devoted to the criteria of legal convergence such as the compliance of national legislation with Art. 130 and 131 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, with the Statute of the European System of Central Banks (in particular Articles 7, 12, 14 and 37) and the Statute of the European Central Bank and the issues related to the preparation of the national legal system for the introduction of the euro as legal currency. The aim of the paper is to examine the state of readiness of national legal and institutional structures for Poland’s entry into the euro zone and to identify the areas that still need to be adapted to the provisions of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and the Statute of the European System of Central Banks, and the European Central Bank.
EN
The article addresses the problem ignored by mainstream economists - the negative social and economic consequences of the lack of own currency and the ability to conduct a national monetary policy. This issue is particularly important to the discussion about Polish accession to the EU common payment area. Using as a subject of study current European debt crisis the Author shows the Reader that the causes of the problems of southern outskirts of the euro zone does not arise "from living beyond their means", but most of all because of the lack of own currency. Countries of southern Europe, as a result of hasty abandonment of the opportunity to conduct their own monetary policy, lost their own economic competitiveness (ability to influence the unit labour costs) in relation to the dominant German export economy. The countries of southern Europe have become "prisoners of the euro zone", because it is not possible to conduct the same monetary policy for countries with different levels of inflation and competitiveness. Sooner or later, countries with a higher rate of inflation than the ECB's inflation target will lose their competitiveness and become indebted to the dominant economies - exporters of capital. There is no compensation for the loss of competitiveness from the common EU budget. The article draws attention to the social consequences of the existing "independence of the NBP” model and the "prohibition of monetary financing of the budget deficit by the National Bank of Poland”. In the end the Author defines the term "financial sovereignty".
PL
Artykuł dotyka problemu omijanego przez ekonomistów głównego nurtu - negatywnych konsekwencji społecznych i gospodarczych braku własnej waluty oraz możliwości prowadzenia narodowej polityki pieniężnej. Temat ten jest szczególnie ważny wobec rozważań Polski na temat przystąpienia do wspólnego obszaru płatniczego UE. Wykorzystując jako przedmiot badania aktualny europejski kryzys zadłużenia Autor pokazuje Czytelnikowi, że przyczyny problemów południowych peryferii strefy EURO wynikają nie „z życia ponad stan" lecz przede wszystkim z powodu braku własnej waluty. Kraje południa Europy wskutek pochopnej rezygnacji z możliwość prowadzenia własnej polityki pieniężnej utraciły w sposób niezawiniony własną konkurencyjność gospodarczą (możliwość wpływania na jednostkowe koszty pracy) względem dominującej eksportowej gospodarki niemieckiej. Kraje południa Europy stały się „więźniami strefy EURO", gdyż nie jest możliwe prowadzenie tej samej polityki pieniężnej dla krajów o różnym poziomie inflacji i konkurencyjności. Prędzej czy później kraje o wyższej stopie inflacji niż cel inflacyjny EBC utracą swoją konkurencyjność i zostają dłużnikami dominujących gospodarek - eksporterów kapitału. Brak jest rekompensat za utratę konkurencyjności ze wspólnego budżetu UE. W artykule zwraca się uwagę na konsekwencje społeczne istniejącego „modelu niezależności NBP” oraz „zakazu finansowania deficytu budżetowego przez NBP". Na zakończenie Autor definiuje pojęcie „suwerenności finansowej".
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