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1

Pierwsze groby kultur ceramik wstęgowych w Polsce. Groby kultury lubelsko-wołyńskiej ze stanowiska Złota "Grodzisko I" i "Grodzisko II

100%

Sałacińska B., Zakościelna A.

Wiadomości Archeologiczne

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2007

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vol. LIX

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issue 59

77-114

EN

The first regular rescue excavation at Złota, comm. Samborzec, distr. Sandomierz, woj. świętokrzyskie, was carried out (1926–1930) under supervision of the State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw (J. Żurowski 1934, p. 31; 1935, p. 291) and focused on several archaeological sites identified in the area (Fig. 1–6); rich remains of settlements and cemeteries were discovered, dating from the Neolithic to early Medieval Period (J. Żurowski 1929, p. 4–9; 1934). To verify these findings site ‘Grodzisko II’ at Złota was revisited in 1956 and 1958 by a team from the Institute of the History of Material Culture of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw (Fig. 7; Z. Podkowińska, D. Rauhut, Z. Krzak 1959a, p. 237, 239; 1959b, p. 20–21). Investigation at Złota uncovered ie a large settlement (more than one?) of Lublin-Volhynian Culture (LVC) and a number of graves associated with this archaeological unit (Fig. 8–10); these findings are discussed in the present study: grave 390 – Złota, ‘Grodzisko I’ (the 1929 investigation); graves 27, 101, 121, 122 – Złota, ‘Grodzisko II’ (in 1930), and a burial discovered inside a storage pit no. 16 (1956). Grave 390 was situated in W part of the site, between ditches V/3 and II/5, close to a strip of ground dividing ditches V/3 and V/4, in the neighbourhood of storage pit no. 264 associated with LVC (Fig. 8). A 220×160 cm sub-oval grave pit held the remains of an adultus/maturus woman lying in contracted position on her left side, head W (Fig. 11, 12). Grave goods included three vessels set above her head, two copper earrings, a necklace of five Glycymeris and two Veneridae shells found around her cranium, a pendant of a wild pig lower canine, several hundred Cerithium shells, also resting around the skull, and several score Naticidae shells discovered at the left wrist (Fig. 12–16). Finally, a vessel base was found by the right thigh bone. Grave 27, identified in SE region of the investigated area (Fig. 8), was a partly destroyed double burial of an adultus female and child (infans II) discovered at the depth of 30 cm. The woman rested in an extended supine position, head W. Her cranium was sharply twisted back and rested on its left cheek. Arms were flexed at the elbows, forearms upraised, left hand extended towards the child’s knees and the leg bones crossed at the ankles. The child lay in a contracted position on its right side, aligned S (head) – N (legs). It is possible that in this grave the principal burial had been that of the child (a boy – resting on his right side, in this tradition reserved for males), and the woman (mother?) had been placed in the grave with her feet bound. The arrangement of her remains gives the impression that at the time of burial she was still alive and had tried to turn towards (get closer to) the child whose body lay over her head (Fig. 17). According to the field diary of J. Żurowski a vessel (now lost) which had stood by the woman’s right had had a white painted ornament. Grave 101 was discovered in the NW area of the site, in a group with graves 121 and 122 (Fig. 8). Its rectangular 215×95 pit held the remains of an adultus/maturus male resting in contracted position on his right side, head to SW (Fig. 18, 19). Grave goods included fifteen vessels set in two groups: group A (7 vessels) standing before the dead man, set along the E wall of the grave pit, in a line from his head to hips, in the following order: amphora, cup, larger cup, with smaller cup inside, large cup, amphora, amphora. Group B (8 vessels) set at the man’s feet forming the border of the grave pit on its NW side included a pot with four smaller containers within (in the following order: bowl with perpendicular walls, bowl with rounded walls, oval bow, cup), a cup, a bowl with a cup inside (Fig. 20, 21:9.12–15). Other objects included a bracelet of copper wire with a circular pendant of the same material (Fig. 21:16.17) surviving on the man’s left forearm, an antler axe behind the man’s back, an ornamented bone dagger, which presumably originally rested inside the man’s belt (Fig. 21:27), and a set of eleven flint artefacts: five blades, retouched blade, endscraper, retouched truncation, perforator and two trapezes (Fig. 21:18–26). Apart from the trapezes which lay under a vessel in group B all other flints formed a concentration near the man’s left hip, seven of them clustering within a splotch of red pigment (ochre) which has been interpreted as the remains of a container (pouch) of organic material painted red (Fig. 19). The dead man had been provided with beef (a slab of ribs placed in line with the vessel group A) and from a number of animals of undetermined species. The trunk and feet of the man were strewn about with a large quantity of Cerithium shells (Fig. 22); finally, red pigment (presumably ochre) was observed under the skeleton – at cranium, pelvis and feet (Fig. 19). Grave 121, largely lost to ploughing, held the remains of two individuals. In the surviving NE section were found lower limb bones (skeleton A) and a concentration of three vessels. From the arrangement of bones it is possible to determine the position of only the skeleton A, which presumably rested on its right side (male?), head to SE. The arrangement of quite mixed up bones of skeleton B (shin and thigh bones) suggests that it also had rested on its right side (Fig. 23, 24). The vessel concentration resting at the thigh and knees of skeleton A included a large cup within which were found a smaller cup and an amphora (Fig. 25). Grave 122 produced no human remains but held eleven vessels as well as flint objects and some animal bones (Fig. 26–28), resting in an arrangement similar as in grave 101. In SE part of the grave was found a concentration of four vessels: a wide-necked pot containing a hollow--footed beaker, a small cup, and an amphora. In N and NW area of the grave was a second concentration of seven vessels: an amphora with a small cup inside, another amphora, large cup, large cup, amphora, and smaller cup (Fig. 29). Flint finds included three blades, a retouched truncation and a retouched blade (Fig. 30); animal bones included ribs of a horse, lying in the same line as the vessel concentration in the SE part of the grave, and a pile of sheep/goat, pig, cattle and bird bones found by the second vessel group; the entire grave was strewn about with Cerithium shells (Fig. 27, 28). Storage pit no. 16 held a skeleton of a woman (early adultus) lying in a contracted position on her left side, head to S (Fig. 32). There were no grave furnishings. The fill of the pit overlying the skeleton produced fragments of LVC pottery. Out of all post-linear groups in Poland LVC is represented by the largest number of human burials which provide a substantial basis for reconstructing the funerary rite. Jointly with graves discovered in Volhynia and Podolia (Ukraine) some 140 or so burials of this culture unit are recorded (A. Zakościelna 2006b, p. 89). The graves recorded at Złota were richly furnished with diverse goods (Table 1), which is consistent with the burial rite noted in LVC. At the same time the inventory produced by grave 101 is of unprecedented richness. This burial of an adult male was accompanied by a set of no less than thirty items, seven categories of raw material in all: 15 pottery vessels, 11 flint objects, bone dagger, antler axe, two copper objects, abundant Cerithium shells and ochre. Another comparatively richly furnished grave is no 122 – a cenotaph – which judging by the presence of exceptionally fine flint objects may also be interpreted as a male ‘burial’. The female grave 390, although furnished with a smaller inventory, cannot be said to be poor either. This is mainly because of the presence in this burial of exotic imported shells. Their value and nature of a status symbol is indicated by the fact that so far such shells have not been recorded in any other grave in LVC. Their presence testifies to wide-ranging contacts of LVC communities with the environment of Eneolithic cultures on the Black Sea. Such links may also be indicated by the cenotaph no. 122, a form of burial very rage in LVC. At the present stage of analysis of Eneolithic evidence from Złota it is extremely difficult to undertake clarification and interpretation of many questions relating to the grave assemblages presented here. One of such issues is the location of the graves in relation to storage pits in LVC settlement/settlements. To all appearances feature 390 at ‘Grodzisko I’ was a solitary grave situated within the settlement. Grave 390 (and possibly, other, no longer existing graves) in this part of the site are attributed to the classic phase, presumably the period of liveliest settlement activity by LVC people. Similar dating should be given also to grave 27 and the burial inside pit 16 at ‘Grodzisko II’, and also to solitary graves discovered in proximity of settlement features. The cemetery (ie graves 101, 121 and 122) would have been established at the onset of phase III (late phase) on the margin of the settlement catchment at a time when the settlement was on the way to decline. More far-reaching conclusions will have to wait until the evidence from Złota has been analysed in full and the chronology of spatial development of the settlement reconstructed. From evidence published so far in piecemeal fashion it is known that the settlement had been of substantial duration. Some of the material recovered so far is quite early and may be linked to phase I (pre-classic) (Z. Podkowińska 1953, pl. VII:2.3), followed by material – apparently the most abundant – from the classic phase (Z. Podkowińska 1953, pl. I–III); late phase is represented by the presence in the pottery of eg Scheibenhenkel handles (J. Kamieńska, J. K. Kozłowski 1990, pl. 31:1.4). Typical for phase B in Bodrogkeresztúr Culture (cf M. Kaczanowska 1986, p. 43, 46), Scheibenhenkel handles noted in LVC deposits probably correspond to horizon IIIb. It would appear that at Złota we have the complete developmental sequence of LVC culture. All the graves from Złota were provided with radiocarbon determinations (Table 2, fig. 33). The date obtained for the burial in storage pit no. 16 (5500±40 BP) fits within the range of 4370–4320 BC (52.5%, for sigma 1) and 4450–4310 BC (83.0% for sigma 2). These values may correspond in relative chronology to early phase of LVC (S. Kadrow, A. Zakościelna 2000, fig. 44; A. Zakościelna 2006, p. 89). The only problem is that featuring no grave goods the burial is linked to LVC only on the basis of materials associated with this culture discovered within the layer overlying the skeleton (Z. Podkowińska 1959b, p. 15–17). As such culture attribution of this burial is at once plausible but problematic. The radiocarbon date matches the upper chronological confines of the classic phase of Malice Culture (S. Kadrow 1996, p. 68), also documented at Złota in the form of settlement remains. On the other hand there is evidence to postulate very early settlement of LVC at the site basing on the presence of pestle-like vessels in pits 40 and 129a at ‘Grodzisko I’ (Z. Podkowińska 1953, Pl. VII:2.3); these forms are parallel to ceramic forms noted in the Transylvanian group Iclod (Gh. Lazarovici 1991, p. 31). Radiocarbon dates obtained for grave 27 (5270±40 BP) are 4170–4090 BC (27.6% for sigma 1) and 4180–3980 BC (78.9% for sigma 2). This corresponds to the chronology of (classic) phase II in LVC (S. Kadrow, A. Zakościelna 2000, fig. 44; A. Zakościelna 2006, p. 90). Unfortunately, also in case of this grave the dating cannot be corroborated by material finds as its grave furniture has yet to be discovered. Graves 390 (5170±40 BP), 101 (5060±30 BP), and 122 (5020±40 BP) survive complete with intact set of grave furnishings. The result obtained for grave 390 is 4000–3950 BC (50.7% for sigma 1) and 4050–3930 BC (86.3% for sigma 2). This value of radiocarbon dating places this feature in phase II of development of LVC, which is consistent with the dating of the grave inventory and the location of the burial within the settlement. The determination obtained for grave 101 is 3950–3830 BC (54.1% for sigma 1) and 3960–3780 BC (95.4% for sigma 2) whereas grave 122 in its neighbourhood produced the following respective values: 3940–3870 BC (33.7% for sigma 1) and 3950–3700 BC (95.4% for sigma 2). These determinations suggest that both features should be placed late in phase II of LVC, while the formal and stylistic attributes of their ceramics recall similarity with material noted in phase A in Bodrogkeresztúr Culture, which corresponds to horizon IIIa of late phase of LVC. As such, the dates obtained would be too early. Grave assemblages discussed here represent but a small fragment of the history of human settlement in sites ‘Grodzisko I’ and ‘II’ at Złota. A staggering amount of archaeological material still awaits analysis and interpretation, in particular, rich evidence on multiple stages of occupation by Danubian folk, first of all, the fortified settlement of LVC. Over long decades this record has continued to be known only from a small number of finds which had been published at random when they were needed to support diverse concepts. Comprehensive analysis and publication of the material from Złota is urgently needed as it represents a vast body of data which could prove of key importance for resolving many vital issues related to the Neolithic and Eneolithic in Poland.

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Zespoły grobowe z krzemiennymi płoszczami w Małopolsce i na Wołyniu

84%

Bargieł B., Libera J.

Wiadomości Archeologiczne

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2005

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vol. LVII

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issue 57

3-27

EN

Large bifacially-worked flint points also called projectiles (other names: spearpoints, daggers) constituted a regular element of the tool inventory of the communities inhabiting the territory of the Little Poland and Volhynia, especially in the Early Bronze Age. Despite their considerable number (over 350 items) almost 90% of the collection comprises stray finds that is ones which are deprived of the archaeological context. A third of the remaining group represents artefacts obtained from destroyed and impossible to reconstruct features, which were typically found by accidental discoverers. So far, 39 projectile points are known which were recorded in graves in the Little Poland and Volhynia, of which 13 come from destroyed burials or constitute the so called stray finds obtained from the surface of inhumation cemeteries (Table 1). An analysis of three most important cemeteries (Czerniczyn, site 3, Strzyżów and Torczyn) allows us to conclude that flint projectiles appear in the early phase of the Mierzanowice Culture. They occur in graves which are devoid of ceramics and in which the individuals exhibited various degrees of crouching. The mutual similarity between these points paved the way for distinguishing the points of the Czerniczyn-Torczyn type (Fig. 19) including both the lean and bulky forms with a triangular and leaf-shaped top. They had a short or long tang which could be either weakly or clearly distinguished (Fig. 1–5, 8B.D, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18). In the late phase of the Mierzanowice Culture, asymmetrical points occur which are made of local raw material and constitute transitional forms between the tanged projectile points of the Czerniczyn-Torczyn type and the tangless specimens (Fig. 6, 14). Quite different points are connected with the Strzyżów Culture, which have so far been known only from one cemetery in Raciborowice-Kolonia, site II, grave 23 and 24. They represent the sub-oval and pentagonal type (Fig. 6, 14). The problem of determining the specific usage of this type of bifacial tool by the societies of the Trzciniec and Lusatian Cultures is extremely difficult. Taking into account the knowledge of the bilaterally retouch technique it is impossible to exclude the possibility that the people of these cultures knew and were able to produce flint projectile points. Nonetheless, in the case of the artefacts under discussion, it is highly probable that both cultures adopted the points of the “older cultures”. The problem of the origins of the bifacial points produced in the Volhynian workshops is yet to thoroughly study. The lean and bulky triangular and leaf-shaped tanged projectile points which were produced there, as well as the analogical tools with weakly distinguished tangs called projectiles of the Czerniczyn-Torczyn type, should probably viewed as connected with the people of the so called Gródek-Zdołbica group of the Mierzanowice Culture at the territory of Volhynia. On the other hand, in the Little Poland, their presence should be associated with the phenomenon of ceramic-free crouched burials of this culture, which was established on the basis of uncalibrated radiocarbon dates obtained from the cemetery in Czerniczyn (1770 ± 30 BC and 1740 ± 30 BC) and similar features (devoid of projectile points) discovered in Szpikołosy Kolonia – 1790 ± 70 BC and in Świerszczów Kolonia, site 28 – 1870 ± 40 BC (Fig. 24). Generally, this phenomenon should be connected with the second quarter of the 18th century BC and synchronised with the early phase of the Mierzanowice Culture. Another horizon of the occurrence of projectile points at the territory under discussion can be determined by lean leaf-shaped tangless points having a bottom with a distinguished base. An item of this type comes from a destroyed grave from Beresteczko, and also from the Dniester and Horodenka rivers. The appearance of flint projectile points in the Western Ukraine was most probably due to the Gródek-Zdołbice people who produced them in the workshops situated beyond the upper sections of the Horyn and Styr rivers, from where they spread into the area of Polesie, Little Poland, Mazowsze, Podlasie and the Sieradz Land (Fig. 20–23). In the later period they were supplemented by tools based on local raw materials, that is, the Świeciechów, chocolate, and Jurassic flint (Fig. 25). The flint projectile points should undoubtedly be viewed as multifunctional tools which could be used at work, battle, as well as the attributes of power. At a later stage, probably from the second half of the classic phase of the Mierzanowice Culture, they began to be replaced by other multifunctional bifacial tools such as sickle-shaped knives having a similar function as points (stilettos, knives, daggers, sickles), which were frequently deposited at the cemeteries of this culture at the territory of Sandomierz Upland (Mierzanowice, Wojciechowice, Złota). Initially, both these forms could have co-existed. The reversal of the quantitative proportions took place towards the end of the classic phase of the Mierzanowice Culture. It should be noted that a series of both tools bare similar macro-traces of work in the form of gloss (almost lustrous) with a similar location with respect to their cutting-edges and the top.

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Pochówek w Galicji. Wybrane zagadnienia administracyjno-prawne. Część II

84%

Kotliński T. J.

Studia z Dziejów Państwa i Prawa Polskiego

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2021

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vol. XXIV

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issue 24

87-98

EN

The second half of 18th century brought the era of change in existing burial procedures in many European countries, where corpses were buried in churches and adjacent cemeteries. The changes were implemented due to health related aspects, but also through limited burial capabilities within the town administrative borders. In Austria, the decision to move cemeteries outside the town administrative borders, was made by Emperor Franz Joseph II before the end of 1783. As a consequence, numerous new cemeteries were commonly established within the territory of the State, including Galicia, many of which exist to the present day. Concurrently with time, there were a number of legal acts issued in Austria, that precisely governed issues relating to organization of cemeteries and funerals. In the second part of the study, selected legal issues concerning administration of the cemeteries are presented, including fees and cemetery infrastructure. Legal solutions introduced by the city of Kraków regarding management of Rakowicki Cemetery in the second part of the 19th century are given as an example.

PL

Druga połowa XVIII w. to okres odchodzenia w wielu państwach europejskich od dotychczasowych zasad pochówku, opartych na grzebaniu zwłok w kościołach i na cmentarzach zlokalizowanych w ich bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie. Dokonywane zmiany motywowane były przede wszystkim względami zdrowotnymi, ale również ograniczonymi możliwościami pochówków w obrębie samych miast. W przypadku Austrii decyzja o przeniesieniu cmentarzy poza obręb miejscowości podjęta została przez cesarza Józefa II końcem 1783 r. Jej konsekwencją było niemal powszechne zakładanie na terenie państwa, w tym także w Galicji, nowych cmentarzy, z których część funkcjonuje do dziś. Jednocześnie w Austrii z biegiem kolejnych lat wydawano szereg aktów prawnych, które szczegółowo regulowały kwestie związane z organizacją cmentarzy i pogrzebów. W drugiej części opracowania przedstawiono wybrane zagadnienia prawne w zakresie administracji cmentarzami, m.in. dotyczące opłat oraz infrastruktury cmentarnej. Jako przykład posłużyły rozwiązania prawne przyjęte w drugiej połowie XIX w. przez miasto Kraków dla zarządu Cmentarza Rakowickiego.

4

Protection of Graves and Cemeteries in Treaties on Friendship and Cooperation Signed by Poland with States Formed after the Collapse of the USSR

71%

Staszewski W. S.

Roczniki Nauk Prawnych

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2020

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vol. 30

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issue 3

161-181

EN

Cooperation of states in terms of protection of graves and cemeteries is an important factor of building mutual respect and trust between countries and encourages the creation of a basis of understanding and rapprochement between nations. This article analyses agreements on friendship and cooperation signed by Poland, which play a special role in state treaty relations. The personal scope of the study was limited to agreements signed with states formed after the collapse of the USSR-this area, taking into account various events shaped historically (and not only in the scope of the history of Poland) is especially important in the context of protection of graves and cemeteries. It is where numerous necropolises and places of burial of Poles are located. It also needs to be taken into account that a number of places of burial of remains of persons coming from various countries are located in the territory of Poland. The aim of the study is to provide an answer to the research question of whether cooperation in terms of protection of graves and cemeteries was taken into account in the provisions of political treaties signed by Poland with the aforementioned states and if this cooperation was given an appropriate rank, thus, whether there was an adequate legal framework guaranteeing implementation of the cooperation in an appropriate way in the discussed scope.

PL

Ochrona grobów i cmentarzy w traktatach o przyjaźni i współpracy zawartych przez Polskę z państwami ukształtowanymi po rozpadzie ZSRR Współdziałanie państw w zakresie ochrony grobów i cmentarzy stanowi ważny czynnik budowy wzajemnego poszanowania i zaufania między państwami oraz sprzyja tworzeniu podstaw zrozumienia i zbliżenia między narodami. W niniejszym artykule dokonano analizy zawartych przez Polskę umów o przyjaźni i współpracy, które odgrywają szczególną rolę w stosunkach traktatowych państw. Zakres podmiotowy opracowania ograniczony został do umów podpisanych z państwami ukształtowanymi po rozpadzie ZSRR – obszar ten, biorąc pod uwagę różne wydarzenia ukształtowane historycznie (i to nie tylko w zakresie historii Polski), jest szczególnie ważny w kontekście ochrony grobów i cmentarzy. To tam znajdują się liczne nekropolie i miejsca pochówku Polaków. Należy także mieć na względzie, że na terytorium Polski zlokalizowanych jest też wiele miejsc pochówku szczątków ludzkich osób pochodzących z różnych państw. Celem opracowania jest udzielenie odpowiedzi na pytanie badawcze, czy współpraca w zakresie ochrony grobów i cmentarzy została uwzględniona w postanowieniach traktatów politycznych zawartych przez Polskę ze wspomnianymi państwami oraz czy współpracy tej nadano odpowiednią rangę, a tym samym, czy znalazły się odpowiednie ramy prawne gwarantujące we właściwy sposób realizację współpracy we wskazanym obszarze.

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Luksusowy egzemplarz Dei Sepolcri Ugo Foscola w zbiorach Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej – pochodzenie i droga do Krakowa

67%

Rostworowska-Kenig W.

Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej

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2019-2020

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vol. 69-70

85-98

EN

This article is devoted to a copy of the first edition of Ugo Foscolo’s Dei Sepolcri from 1807, held in the Jagiellonian Library. However, its aim is not to analyse the text itself but to make an attempt to solve the mystery of whom the work might have originally belonged to. Having identified the donor, a woman named Kicińska, I next managed to get through to Elżbieta Skotnicka née Laśkiewicz, who may have been the owner of a part of the book collection donated in the 1930s. This is attested not only by the blood ties between the two women, but also by the reason why it was likely Skotnicka who acquired the aforementioned copy of the Italian work. Foscolo’s poem is set around the theme of the graves of great and distinguished Italians in the Florentine church of Santa Croce, where the remains of Michał Bogoria Skotnicki, a Polish painter and Elizabeth’s husband, were actually interred several years after its publication. It therefore seemed worthwhile to me to reconstruct the history of this particular work and to present it to the readers of “Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej.”

PL

Artykuł poświęcony jest przechowywanemu w Bibliotece Jagiellońskiej egzemplarzowi pierwszego wydania utworu Dei Sepolcri Ugo Foscola z roku 1807. Celem rozważań nie jest jednak analiza samego tekstu, lecz próba rozwikłania zagadki, do kogo dzieło to pierwotnie mogło należeć. Zidentyfikowawszy osobę ofiarodawczyni – Kicińską, dotarłam następnie do Elżbiety z Laśkiewiczów Skotnickiej, która mogła być właścicielką części przekazanego w latach 30. XX wieku księgozbioru. Wskazują na to nie tylko łączące obie panie więzy krwi, ale również powód, dla którego prawdopodobnie Skotnicka nabyła omawiany egzemplarz włoskiego dzieła. Wokół tematyki grobów wielkich i zasłużonych Włochów we florenckim kościele Santa Croce osnuty jest poemat Foscola, tam zaś kilka lat po jego wydaniu złożono szczątki Michała Bogorii Skotnickiego, polskiego malarza i męża Elżbiety. Zasadnym wydało mi się więc zrekonstruowanie historii tego konkretnego dzieła i przybliżenie jej czytelnikom „Biuletynu Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej”.

6

Pochówek w Galicji. Wybrane zagadnienia administracyjno-prawne. Część I

67%

Kotliński T. J.

Studia z Dziejów Państwa i Prawa Polskiego

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2020

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vol. 23

229-253

EN

The second half of 18th century brought the era of change in existing burial procedures in many European countries, where corpses were buried in churches and adjacent cemeteries. The changes were implemented due to health related aspects, but also through limited burial capabilities within the town administrative borders. In Austria, the decision to move cemeteries outside the town administrative borders, was made by Emperor Franz Joseph II before the end of 1783. As a consequence, numerous new cemeteries were commonly established within the territory of the State, including Galicia, many of which exist to the present day. Concurrently with time, there were a number of legal acts issued in Austria, that precisely governed issues relating to organization of cemeteries and funerals. The study presents selected legal and administrative solutions, being in force throughout the years on the territory of Habsburg Monarchy in the broadly understood area of cemetery regulations. The legal acts directly relating to and only being in force in Galicia were also included in the study. Thus, in the subsequent parts of the study, the specific issues related to establishing new cemeteries outside the town administrative borders, enlarging their areas, closing them and legal status were presented. The study presents the legal regulations concerning the transportation of the corpse, rules of organizing burials and related fees. Concurrently, the special attention was drawn to specific forms of burials, which were in force during cholera epidemic, occurring in Galicia. It is well worth mentioning, that many solutions of cemetery law implemented during Galician times were still biding in Reborn Poland and had direct influence not only on the modern appearance of the cemeteries established during that time, but also on certain burial practices.

PL

Druga połowa XVIII w. to okres odchodzenia w wielu państwach europejskich od dotychczasowych zasad pochówku, opartych na grzebaniu zwłok w kościołach i na cmentarzach zlokalizowanych w ich bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie. Dokonywane zmiany motywowane były przede wszystkim względami zdrowotnymi, ale również ograniczonymi możliwościami pochówków w obrębie samych miast. W przypadku Austrii decyzja o przeniesieniu cmentarzy poza obręb miejscowości podjęta została przez cesarza Józefa II końcem 1783 r. Jej konsekwencją było niemal powszechne zakładanie na terenie państwa, w tym także w Galicji, nowych cmentarzy, z których część funkcjonuje do dziś. Jednocześnie w Austrii z biegiem kolejnych lat wydawano szereg aktów prawnych, które szczegółowo regulowały kwestie związane z organizacją cmentarzy i pogrzebów. W opracowaniu przedstawiono wybrane rozwiązania prawne i administracyjne, które na przestrzeni lat obowiązywały w monarchii habsburskiej w zakresie szeroko rozumianego prawa cmentarnego. Uwzględniono przy tym również te akty prawne, które bezpośrednio dotyczyły Galicji i tylko w niej były stosowane. Tym samym w kolejnych rozdziałach przedstawiono w szczególności zagadnienia związane z zakładaniem nowych cmentarzy poza obrębem miejscowości, poszerzania ich terenu, likwidowania oraz ich statusu prawnego. Opracowanie przedstawia także regulacje prawne w zakresie przewożenia zwłok, zasad, na jakich organizowano pogrzeby, i pobieranych od tego obrzędu opłat. Przy okazji zwrócona została uwaga na szczególne formy pochówku, które obowiązywały choćby w przypadku pojawiających się w Galicji epidemii cholery. Warto przy tym nadmienić, że wiele z przyjętych w okresie galicyjskim rozwiązań z zakresu prawa cmentarnego obowiązywało jeszcze w odrodzonej Polsce i miało bezpośredni wpływ nie tylko na współczesny wygląd cmentarzy założonych w tamtym okresie, ale też na pewne zwyczaje pogrzebowe.

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