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EN
Migration plays a central role in current global processes of economic, social and political change. And it is a major challenge for the EU and the Member States. This paper presents some of the changed policy environment in which the EU finds itself and focuses on the developing process of a new European agenda for immigration and asylum policy. It analysis the current state of global migration and its emerging trends and highlights some of the key shifts in the European policymaking environment that the EU will face. A growing demand for European as opposed to national approaches to immigration issues allows to increase the weight of the EU in world population terms.
EN
The Return Directive allows for the detention of minors during removal proceedings, but only as a ‘last resort’, for ‘the shortest appropriate period of time’ and with the primary consideration of the ‘best interests of the child’. While the Directive attempted to provide some safeguards to minors, these are undermined throughout, as the enforcement of such provisions depends significantly on their incorporation into domestic law. I provide an overview of the EU detention policy, map the existing domestic law framework in light of the benchmarks set out by the Directive and human rights instruments, and argue that there is a lack of consistency in the case study of Poland. In doing so, I analyse the limitations to detaining minors in light of the human rights treaties, of the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights, and of the role of the monitoring body – the Committee on the Rights of the Child. In discussing the different types of jurisprudence, I illustrate how different bodies speak with the same voice on the detention of minors. Based on these findings I attempt to contribute to the policy debate on how to reconcile and balance the implications of two policy objectives affecting irregular migrant children - the protection of minors and immigration enforcement. I identify detention policy aspects, for which the legislation should be further harmonised, and I develop models of good practices based on other Member States’ practices, thus providing a set of policy recommendations to the Polish legislator as to what fair and effective irregular migration governance might entail.
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EN
The article analyses a series of in-depth expert interviews conducted in the first half of 2015 with border guards from selected units across Poland within the framework of the project CIS – Modular Multipurpose System of Foreigner Identification with a risk of trafficking analysis module. Special preparedness for intensified migration in Europe, and potentially also in Poland, observed already in the first half of 2015 when the fieldwork was conducted, indicates that although the analyzed material covers the period before the onset of the refugee crisis, its conclusions are universal and can be applied to a different migratory situation. The term “irregular migration” is used throughout the text to describe different instances of non-compliance with the law at different stages of the migration process (mainly entry, residence, and work), keeping in mind that it is an imprecise term that is increasingly replaced with expressions meant to reduce stigmatization on the one hand, and to convey the complexity of the issue on the other. The expression “irregular migration” functions in Polish law, although without a precise definition. The Border Guard, as stated in the law regulating the activities of this formation, is the primary state agency tasked with preventing and combating irregular migration. Statistics available in Poland – which allow to estimate the supposed scale of irregular migration – show it to be a very marginal phenomenon, in fact similar to immigration to Poland, in spite of an observable climb in statistics since 2014. From the viewpoint of the relevant services, it seems alarming, however, that although irregular migration levels remain relatively low (particularly compared to other EU countries), there are many (although it is not clear on what scale) violations, associated, if not with irregular migration as such, then with processes typically described as semi-legal or quasi-legal migration. The data available indicate that the number of foreigners staying in Poland illegally is somewhere between a couple to several thousand people. The picture is somewhat different when it comes to the estimated number of foreigners staying in Poland for very short periods of time without the required documents. It is impossible to determine how many such people enter and leave Poland every month or year, particularly due to Schengen arrangements which leave a large section of the state border without checks. Comparing irregular migration-related threats from a dozen years ago to those encountered in Poland today, we can describe today’s irregular migration as irregular migration in “velvet gloves,” or semi-legal migration. On the one hand, the complexity and content of Polish migration law (in terms of what is permitted, and what is not) create potential for abuses. These abuses have, however, become more and more difficult to detect and demonstrate in proceedings before other authorities (prosecutors, courts). Unauthorized movements or organized trans-border travel often have an air of legality; many elements of the migration process comply with the law, authentic documents are used and procedures are followed, yet deeper analysis reveals that the process is essentially based on activities that violate the law (for example, obtaining the attestation of false statements under false pretenses, deliberately misleading a public official, staying within the territory of Poland for purposes other than those stated when applying for a residence or entry permit). The results of the qualitative study carried out among experts show that irregular migration in Poland in the second decade of the twenty-first century is essentially a marginal problem, particularly when compared to the challenges faced by other EU countries, unless we also consider so-called semi-legal migration. The latter is a massscale phenomenon, although this mass quality is not evidenced by official figures. Two phenomena belonging to semi-legal migration, with the potential of turning into “classic” irregular migration, came to the fore in the discussion on forms of irregular migration in Poland, the possibilities of detecting them, as well as the limited means there are of preventing them. The first is unjustified recourse to refugee procedures. The second consists in abusing a procedure that experts have deemed virtually unverifiable, namely the simplified procedure for hiring foreigners based on the employer’s declaration of intent. The fact that this procedure has contributed to the growth of services linked directly to organized irregular migration was mentioned by the respondents as the most problematic aspect of the said legal instrument. The issue of abusing other procedures remained in the background, which does not however mean that these infractions are treated dismissively, however from the viewpoint of the experts interviewed, they are either too few or pose less of a problem in terms of detection and application of relevant sanctions. Taking into account the forms of irregular migration discussed in the article, including types of violations and the limited possibilities of checking them, effective enforcement of compliance with the law on entry, residence and work seems a considerable challenge, particularly given the not always consistent regulations and their interpretation. The institution with the most experience in contacts with foreigners, namely the Border Guard, has long-standing experience in protecting state borders. Currently, the Border Guard is not only a side in various administrative and penal proceedings, but also an institution controlling the legality of stay and work in the territory of Poland. This requires that migration processes be looked at in a broader context, and not merely through the lens of individual infractions. The author attempts to bring out the said broad context and to describe and explain occurring forms of irregular migration.
PL
The aim of the paper is to present selected results of the analysis of the impact of migration policies in the context of development of such criminal phenomena as organising irregular migration or document fraud linked to it. One of the elements of the analysis was the identification of mechanisms of formal social control in reference to the example of functioning of a simplified system aimed at controlling foreigners’ access to the labour market in Poland. In practice, the system has brought also consequences in the form of breaches of penal law. Paradoxically, in the Polish case not more restrictions, but simplifications in the area of foreigners’ access to the labour market have determined in recent years the landscape of irregular migration. Due to the characterof the recognised (administrative or penal) law infringements, the phenomenon may be rather called semi-legal or half-legal migration, since its specificity is the apparent compliance with the laws on entry, stay or work of foreigners, and the simplified procedure of admitting foreigners to the labour market can be helpful in this respect. However, more in-depth reflection allows for identification of law infringements within these actions, which may stem from ambiguous or incomplete legal norms. The differences in perceptions of the abuses of the simplified system of employing foreigners and in responses to them identified in the qualitative study lead to the conclusion that formal social control sometimes contributes to the development of negative phenomena, although the expected result of it is preventing them. Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie wybranych wniosków z analizy skutków polityki migracyjnej w kontekście rozwoju takich zjawisk przestępczych jak organizowanie nielegalnej migracji oraz związane z tym fałszowanie i wyłudzanie dokumentów. Jednym z elementów analizy była identyfikacja mechanizmów formalnej kontroli społecznej na przykładzie funkcjonowania uproszczonej procedury dopuszczania cudzoziemców do rynku pracy w Polsce. System ten w praktyce przyniósł też skutki w postaci naruszeń prawa karnego. Paradoksalnie, w polskich warunkach to nie większe restrykcje, ale ułatwienia w zakresie dostępu cudzoziemców do rynku pracy determinowały w ostatnich latach obraz nielegalnej migracji. Z uwagi na charakter obserwowanych naruszeń prawa (administracyjnego i karnego) zjawiska te można nazywać raczej quasi-nielegalną czy półlegalną migracją, gdyż jej cechą charakterystyczną jest pozorne przestrzeganie zasad wjazdu, pobytu czy pracy cudzoziemców, czemu służyć może właśnie uproszczony system dostępu cudzoziemców do rynku pracy. Pogłębiona refleksja pozwala jednak na identyfikację naruszeń prawa w ramach tych działań, czemu sprzyjają niejednoznaczne czy niekompletne normy prawne. Zidentyfikowane w badaniu jakościowym różnice w postrzeganiu nadużyć uproszczonego systemu zatrudniania cudzoziemców i w reagowaniu na nie prowadzą do wniosku, że formalna kontrola społeczna przyczynia się czasem do rozwoju negatywnych zjawisk, mimo że jej spodziewanym rezultatem jest zapobieganie im.
EN
The aim of the paper is to present selected results of the analysis of the impact of migration policies in the context of development of such criminal phenomena as organising irregular migration or document fraud linked to it. One of the elements of the analysis was the identification of mechanisms of formal social control in reference to the example of functioning of a simplified system aimed at controlling foreigners’ access to the labour market in Poland. In practice, the system has brought also consequences in the form of breaches of penal law. Paradoxically, in the Polish case not more restrictions, but simplifications in the area of foreigners’ access to the labour market have determined in recent years the landscape of irregular migration. Due to the characterof the recognised (administrative or penal) law infringements, the phenomenon may be rather called semi-legal or half-legal migration, since its specificity is the apparent compliance with the laws on entry, stay or work of foreigners, and the simplified procedure of admitting foreigners to the labour market can be helpful in this respect. However, more in-depth reflection allows for identification of law infringements within these actions, which may stem from ambiguous or incomplete legal norms. The differences in perceptions of the abuses of the simplified system of employing foreigners and in responses to them identified in the qualitative study lead to the conclusion that formal social control sometimes contributes to the development of negative phenomena, although the expected result of it is preventing them.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie wybranych wniosków z analizy skutków polityki migracyjnej w kontekście rozwoju takich zjawisk przestępczych jak organizowanie nielegalnej migracji oraz związane z tym fałszowanie i wyłudzanie dokumentów. Jednym z elementów analizy była identyfikacja mechanizmów formalnej kontroli społecznej na przykładzie funkcjonowania uproszczonej procedury dopuszczania cudzoziemców do rynku pracy w Polsce. System ten w praktyce przyniósł też skutki w postaci naruszeń prawa karnego. Paradoksalnie, w polskich warunkach to nie większe restrykcje, ale ułatwienia w zakresie dostępu cudzoziemców do rynku pracy determinowały w ostatnich latach obraz nielegalnej migracji. Z uwagi na charakter obserwowanych naruszeń prawa (administracyjnego i karnego) zjawiska te można nazywać raczej quasi-nielegalną czy półlegalną migracją, gdyż jej cechą charakterystyczną jest pozorne przestrzeganie zasad wjazdu, pobytu czy pracy cudzoziemców, czemu służyć może właśnie uproszczony system dostępu cudzoziemców do rynku pracy. Pogłębiona refleksja pozwala jednak na identyfikację naruszeń prawa w ramach tych działań, czemu sprzyjają niejednoznaczne czy niekompletne normy prawne. Zidentyfikowane w badaniu jakościowym różnice w postrzeganiu nadużyć uproszczonego systemu zatrudniania cudzoziemców i w reagowaniu na nie prowadzą do wniosku, że formalna kontrola społeczna przyczynia się czasem do rozwoju negatywnych zjawisk, mimo że jej spodziewanym rezultatem jest zapobieganie im.
EN
The aim of the paper is to present selected results of the analysis of the impact of migration policies in the context of development of such criminal phenomena as organising irregular migration or document fraud linked to it. One of the elements of the analysis was the identification of mechanisms of formal social control in reference to the example of functioning of a simplified system aimed at controlling foreigners’ access to the labour market in Poland. In practice, the system has brought also consequences in the form of breaches of penal law. Paradoxically, in the Polish case not more restrictions, but simplifications in the area of foreigners’ access to the labour market have determined in recent years the landscape of irregular migration. Due to the character of the recognised (administrative or penal) law infringements, the phenomenon may be rather called semi-legal or half-legal migration, since its specificity is the apparent compliance with the laws on entry, stay or work of foreigners, and the simplified procedure of admitting foreigners to the labour market can be helpful in this respect. However, more in-depth reflection allows for identification of law infringements within these actions, which may stem from ambiguous or incomplete legal norms. The differences in perceptions of the abuses of the simplified system of employing foreigners and in responses to them identified in the qualitative study lead to the conclusion that formal social control sometimes contributes to the development of negative phenomena, although the expected result of it is preventing them.
PL
W XXI wieku nastąpił gwałtowny wzrost migracji z Afryki Subsaharyjskiej do Algierii, a strefa Sahelu stała się, głównym miejscem nielegalnego przemytu ludzi. Niektórzy imigranci udają się na północ kraju, aby kontynuować podróż do Europy; inni pozostają w Algierii, traktując ją jako kraj docelowy i nie odbywają dalszej podróży. Algieria była wielokrotnie oskarżana o stosowanie wobec migrantów nielegalnych praktyk, takich jak deportacje, pushbacki, zatrzymania. Celem artykułu jest próba oceny skali problemu nielegalnej imigracji do Algierii na podstawie dostępnych danych statystycznych i ich periodyzacji oraz opisanie głównych sposobów przemytu ludzi oraz scharakteryzowanie podstawowych zasad polityki migracyjnej. Dlatego też postawiono następujące hipotezy: 1) Algieria jest głównie państwem tranzytowym dla migrantów z Afryki Subsaharyjskiej; 2) Główne szlaki nielegalnych migracji prowadzą ze strefy Sahelu; 3) Odnotowuje się nierówne traktowanie osób pod względem łamania algierskiego prawa (podział na Algierczyków i innych). Na potrzeby artykułu zostały wykorzystane następujące metody badawcze – analiza i synteza, metoda komparatystyczna, statystyczna oraz podejście systemowe.
EN
In the twenty-first century, there was a sharp increase in migration from sub-Saharan Africa to Algeria, and the Sahel zone became a hot stop for illegal human smuggling. Some immigrants go to the north of the country to continue their journey to Europe; others remain in Algeria, treating it as a destination country and do not continue their journey. Algeria has been repeatedly accused of using illegal practices against migrants, such as deportations, pushbacks, and detentions. The aim of the article is to try to assess the scale of the problem of illegal immigration in Algeria based on available statistical data and their periodisation. The main routes taken by migrants will be described, as well as the basic principles of migration policy in Algeria. The following hypotheses were put forward: 1) Algeria is mainly a transit country for migrants from sub-Saharan Africa; 2) The main irregular migration routes lead from the Sahel zone; 3) There is unequal treatment of people in terms of violations of Algerian law (division into Algerians and others). For the purposes of the article, the following research methods were used – analysis and synthesis, comparative method, statistical method, and systemic approach.
PL
Celem artykułu jest ukazanie najważniejszych zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego państwa wynikających z migracji międzynarodowych. Tekst składa się z trzech zasadniczych części. W części pierwszej zwrócono uwagę na powiązania pomiędzy migracjami a takimi negatywnymi zjawiskami jak terroryzm, ekstremizm polityczny, zorganizowana przestępczość oraz silne podziały społeczne skutkujące sytuacjami kryzysowymi (mogącymi prowadzić do aktów agresji). Cześć druga poświęcona została zjawisku nielegalnej migracji jako jednemu z podstawowych wyzwań dla bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego. W części trzeciej natomiast ukazano działania państw zmierzające do ograniczenia ryzyk związanych z przepływami migracyjnymi
EN
The aim of this article is to present the main threats resulting from international migrations to the internal security of the state. The text is divided into three main parts. The first part presents the links between migration and the negative phenomena such as terrorism, political extremism, organized crime and a strong social divisions (which can lead to acts of aggression). The second part is devoted to the phenomenon of illegal migration, which can be perceived as one on the main challenges to internal security of the state. In the third part author describes what actions can be taken by the states to reduce the risks associated with migration flows.
PL
W połowie października 2019 roku Komisja Europejska przedstawiła sprawozdanie dotyczące realizacji działań w ramach „Europejskiego programu w zakresie migracji” z 2015 r. i wskazała na obszary wymagające dalszych działań związanych głównie z nielegalną migracją, przemytem migrantów i handlem ludźmi. KE podkreśliła, że Unia Europejska będzie w stanie skutecznie i humanitarnie walczyć z tymi problemami tylko wtedy, jeśli wszystkie państwa członkowskie wspólnie wezmą udział w tej walce. Nielegalna migracja stała się jednym z najważniejszych problemów UE już w latach 90. XX w., a wzrastająca liczba nielegalnych migrantów zwiększyła poczucie, że pojedyczne państwo nie jest w stanie kontrolować osób przybywających na jego terytorium (Boswell, 2003, ss. 618–620). Europejczycy przerazili się skalą migracji. Zaczęły narastać konflikty i antagonizmy między ludnością miejscową i szybko rosnącą liczbą migrantów. Celem artykułu jest analiza dotychczasowej realizacji postanowień „Europejskiego programu z zakresu migracji” z 2015 roku.
EN
In mid-October 2019, the European Commission presented a report on the implementation of European Agenda on Migration of 2015 and indicated the areas that require further action mainly related to irregular migration, smuggling of migrants and trafficking. The EC emphasized that only by joining forces of all member states the European Union will be able to fight effectively and humanely with these problems. Irregular migration has become one of the EU most important problems since the 1990s, and the growing number of irregular migrants evoked the feeling that a single state is unable to control people arriving on its territory. The Europeans are terrified of the scale of migration. Conflicts and antagonisms between the local population and the rapidly growing number of migrants have begun to increase. The research goal of the article is to analyze the implementation of the 2015 European Agenda on Migration.
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