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PL
Prezentowany artykuł poświęcony jest wykorzystaniu w socjologii prawa oraz kryminologii środowiskowej jednej z nowoczesnych metod obliczeniowych przydatnych do badania dużych zbiorów danych – analizy skupień (grupowania; klasteryzacji). Metoda ta pozwala na podzielenie zbioru obserwacji na ustaloną liczbę podzbiorów takich, że elementy tego samego podzbioru są do siebie możliwie podobne, a elementy różnych podzbiorów – możliwie odmienne. Jeśli dane dotyczą położenia geograficznego, na przykład umiejscowienia przestępstw, rezultatem wykorzystania analizy skupień będzie podział obszaru na ustaloną liczbę wewnętrznie spójnych rejonów według zobiektywizowanego kryterium. Podzielenie badanego terytorium na mniejsze części tradycyjnie, w dużym stopniu arbitralnych, takich jak na przykład podział administracyjny. z zastosowaniem klasteryzacji wydaje się być lepszym rozwiązaniem od kryteriów stosowanych W pracy przedstawiono szczegółową charakterystykę hierarchicznych metod analizy skupień, a następnie wykorzystano metody kombinatoryczną k-średnich oraz hierarchiczną Warda do podziału zbioru danych o zgłoszeniach przestępstw w mieście Baltimore w latach 2014–2019. Wykazano, że powstały w ten sposób podział różni się w sposób znaczący od podziału administracyjnego Baltimore, a także że zwiększanie liczby grup powstających jako wynik analizy skupień prowadzi do pożądanego w pewnych przypadkach wzrostu wariancji zmiennych opisujących strukturę przestępczości w poszczególnych częściach miasta. Utworzone przy użyciu klasteryzacji podziały wykorzystano także do zweryfikowania hipotezy o odmienności struktury przestępczości w różnych obszarach Baltimore. Głównym celem pracy jest zachęcenie do stosowania w badaniach społecznych nowoczesnych metod analizy danych oraz pokazanie, że analiza skupień może być cennym narzędziem w kryminologicznych i socjologicznoprawnych analizach poświęconych relacji między prawem a przestrzenią.
EN
This paper is focused on some of the possibilities of the use of cluster analysis (clustering) in criminology and the sociology of law. Cluster analysis makes it possible to divide even a large dataset into a specified number of subsets in such a way that the resulting subsets are as homogenous as possible, and at the same time differ from each other substantially. When analysing geographical data, e.g. describing the location of crimes, the result of cluster analysis is a division of a territory into a certain number of coherent areas based on an objective criterion. The division of the territory under study into smaller parts is more insightful when the clustering method is applied compared to an arbitrary division into official administrative units. The paper provides a detailed description of hierarchical cluster analysis methods and an example of using the Ward’s hierarchical method and the k-means combinational method to divide data on crime reports in the city of Baltimore between 2014 and 2019. The analysis demonstrates that the resulting division differs considerably from the administrative division of Baltimore, and that increasing the number of groups emerging as a result of cluster analysis leads to an increase of variance of variables describing the structure of crime in individual parts of the city. The divisions obtained using clustering are used to verify the hypothesis on differences in crime structure in different areas of Baltimore. The main aim of the paper is to encourage the use of modern methods of data analysis in social sciences and to present the usefulness of cluster analysis in criminology and the sociology of law research.
EN
The modern criminologists who deal with environmental aspects of crime stress the fact that for an offence – a definite criminal act – to occur, four elements must necessarily coincide: law, perpetrator, object, and place of crime. The modern environmental criminologists are interested in the fourth of these elements, that is the spatial aspect of crime. Discussed in the paper have been the main trends of the modern study of spatial conditions of crime. Unlike the former ecologists of crime, the modern researchers are interested not only in the actual place where the offence was committed or the perpetrator resides, but also – to a much grester extent – in the social and physical features of the place of crime, in the actions that should be undertaken to reduce the “susceptibility to crime” of a given ecological unit, and in the course and consequences of the process of ecological stigmatization of a given region. On of the main trends of modern ecology of crime is analysis of the relations between functions and features of the of the separate fragments of urban space on the one hand, and the extent of crime in that area  on the other hand. The basic difference between the discussed trend and the former traditional ecological thought born in the Chicago school of criminolology consists in the  latter’s attempts at finding the causes of spatial differentiation of the extent of crime in  the combination of sociodemographic factors, architecture, and town-planning. Thus also the factors related to a town’s physical structure are taken into consideration. As has been found in many recent studies, the different crime indices found in the separate urban neighbourhoods are related to those areas’ different functions, social features, and architecture. Another interesting trend is analysis of the process of change within clearly delimited neighbourhoods. The term generally used in this connection is a neighbourhood’s “career in crime”; its sense is identical to that of “career in crime” of an individual which can be found in criminological works. According to British and American authors, changes, in a neighbourhood’s nature can be related e.g. to changing housing policy which obviously influences the shaping of definite human communities in given areas. The social situation in neighbourhoods submitted to formal housing policy is thought to be particularly entangled. This results from the nature of that policy: applied to the population characterized by pent up social problems, it usually consisted in placing large numbers of similar families in one rather small area. Thus individual problem families added up to form  agglomerations of problem groups of the population. The problem of careers in crime of housing districts is related to another important trend in the modern study of environmental conditions of urban crime: the functioning of informal social control which many consider to be as important a factor of urban crime prevention as the official control. Informal control is also thought to influence the oscial  perception of disorder in housing districts. Concerned here is accumulation in a given neighbourhood of external symptoms of social disorganization, that is all the events that might be found – by the locals and strangers alike – to manifest the breakdown of the accepted norms of behavior in urban environment. Analysed is the process of transition from such external symptoms of disorder to crime in a given neighbourhood. Two direct effects are distinguished of occurrence in a neighbourhood of noticeable symptoms of disorder, perceived by the locals as well as strangers. On such effect is the offenders’ conviction as to inefficient (formal and informal) control, in the neighbourhood, which makes criminal activity relatively safe. The other effect consists in some inhabitants’ reluctance to participate in the local life. Their withdrawal from such life results in a distinct breakdown of informal social control, and sometimes in noticeable decline of the neighbourhood which often proves irreversible. Another trend – relatively novel and no doubt characteristic of modern ecology of crime – investigates the impact of architecture of a town or district on crime found in that neighbourhood. On of the currents here, derived from the tradition of situational crime prevention, argues that the actual architecture of the housing districts and other elements of urban space can influence crime, that is facilitate or hamper offences. According to the other current, definite architecture can release deviant and criminal conduct as tenants of the popular large apartment houses feel anonymous and uncontrolled by others. Study of the ways offenders perceive towns, and of their related decisions as to commission of definite acts, is the last of the discussed trends of modern ecology of crime. The related problem here is offenders’ mobility and the distance between their place of residence and locus delicti. Offenders have been found to choose definite objects guided by their belief as to the value, visibility and accessibility of those objects, by transport facilities, and by the apparent presence or absence of supervision on part of the police or other users of the urban space.
EN
The Act on Counteracting the Threat of Sexual Offe ces was enacted on 13 May 2016. One of the solutions it has introduced is a map of the threats of sexual offences. While the construction of this kind of tool for analysing the dimension and the phenomenology of crime does not raise any criticism from the point of view of the science of criminology, the implementation of this solution in Poland does not seem adequate for the intended purpose. This article assesses the Polish solutions regarding the drawing of a map of the threats of sexual offenses in the context of the acquis and the current findings of environmental criminology, including in particular crime prevention through environmental design and the shaping of situational crime prevention.
PL
Ustawa o przeciwdziałaniu zagrożeniom przestępczością na tle seksualnym została uchwalona 13 maja 2016 r. Przewidziane w jej przepisach instytucje i instrumenty prawne mają przeciwdziałać przestępczości seksualnej. Jednym z wprowadzanych rozwiązań jest mapa zagrożeń przestępstwami na tle seksualnym. O ile sama konstrukcja tego rodzaju narzędzia analizy rozmiarów i fenomenologii przestępczości nie budzi zastrzeżeń z punktu widzenia nauki kryminologii, o tyle wydaje się, że to rozwiązanie w polskim wydaniu jest nieadekwatne do realizacji zamierzonego celu. Artykuł poświęcony jest ocenie polskich rozwiązań w zakresie konstruowania mapy zagrożeń przestępstwami na tle seksualnym w kontekście dorobku i dotychczasowych ustaleń kryminologii środowiskowej, w tym w szczególności nurtu zapobiegania przestępczości przez kształtowanie bezpiecznej przestrzeni oraz sytuacyjnej prewencji przestępczości.
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