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PL
Przedmiotem niniejszego artykułu jest charakterystyka funkcji, jakie w doktrynie prawnofinansowej realizują podatki oraz wskazanie ich znaczenia dla praktyki stanowienia prawa podatkowego. W pierwszej kolejności zwrócono uwagę na trudności dotyczące zdefiniowania pojęcia funkcji podatków oraz na brak ich jednolitego katalogu w doktrynie prawa finansowego. Następnie przedstawiona została fiskalna funkcja podatków, a w dalszej kolejności dokonano omówienia pozafiskalnych celów realizowanych przez te daniny publiczne, w głównej mierze scharakteryzowana została ich funkcja redystrybucyjna oraz stymulacyjna. W niniejszym opracowaniu wskazano, że pomimo, iż podstawową funkcją podatków jest funkcja fiskalna, to nie wszystkie podatki realizują ją w takim samym stopniu. W szczególności pierwszoplanowego znaczenia fiskalnego nie powinny odgrywać podatki obciążające dochody osobiste obywateli, gdyż z uwagi na ich konstrukcję prawną są daninami publicznymi predestynowanymi do realizacji zadań o charakterze rozdzielczym i społecznym (socjalnym). Konstatacja ta stanowi, jak się wydaje, istotną wskazówkę dla praktyki stanowienia prawa podatkowego.
EN
The objective of this article is to describe the functions of taxes in the legal and financial doctrine and to indicate their significance for the practice of tax law making. First of all, attention was drawn to the difficulties related to the definition of the concept of tax functions and the lack of their uniform catalogue in the doctrine of financial law. Secondly, the fiscal function of taxes was discussed, and then the non-fiscal objectives pursued by these public levies were analysed, primarily their redistributive and stimulative functions were characterised. This paper indicates that although the basic function of taxes is fiscal, not all taxes perform it to the same extent. In particular, the primary fiscal significance should not be played by taxes on personal income of citizens because – due to their legal structure – they are public levies predestined to perform separation and social tasks. This statement seems to be an important indication for the practice of tax law making.
PL
Zgodnie z teorią rywalizacji hierarchii, konstytucja zawiera szczyty hierarchii, będących systemami norm. Ze względu na ich umiejscowienie w konstytucji, takie hierarchie można nazwać hierarchiami konstytucyjnymi. Hierarchie te rywalizują ze sobą w ramach dynamicznego – chociaż długotrwałego – procesu przekształcania konstytucji. Autonomia w ramach hierarchii konstytucyjnej to istnienie określonego zakresu samodzielności, w szczególności w zakresie tworzenia prawa wewnętrznego lub miejscowego. Takie prawo musi być zgodne z ogólną treścią konstytucji. Autonomia w ramach hierarchii konstytucyjnej jest połączeniem sprzecznych tendencji dotyczących podporządkowania i niezależności. Pierwsze praktyczne próby stosowania teorii rywalizacji hierarchii do badań nad autonomią w ramach hierarchii konstytucyjnych różnych państw zachęcają do podejmowania kolejnych działań w tym zakresie.
EN
According to the Hierarchies Rivalry Theory, a constitution contains the tops of hierarchies, understood as systems of norms. Due to their position in the constitution, such hierarchies may be called constitutional hierarchies. These hierarchies compete with one another in a dynamic – albeit long-term – process of transforming the constitution. Autonomy within the constitutional hierarchy means the existence of a specific scope of independence, in particular in the area of creating internal or local law. Such law must be consistent with the general contents of the constitution. Autonomy within the constitutional hierarchy is a combination of conflicting tendencies of subordination and independence. The first practical attempts to apply the Hierarchies Rivalry Theory to research on autonomy within the constitutional hierarchies of various countries encourage further actions in this area.
EN
The aim of the article is to present and assess the evolution of managers’ perception of institutional changes in Poland in 2009-2015. The significant deficiencies in public institutions as well as the quality of law are criticised by citizens, businessmen and politicians. There are no doubts that some institutional improvements have been made but criticism comes also from foreign experts and business organisations. The article shows and assesses the empirical results of the continuous research that the author began in 1997. A special emphasis, however, was on the findings of the period 2009-2015. The transmission of shifts in an institutional environment into current and long-term decisions made by economic agents is also discussed. JEL: K00; D78; P37
PL
Celem artykułu jest prezentacja i ocena ewolucji postrzegania przez menedżerów zmian w środowisku instytucjonalnym w Polsce w latach 2009-2015. Niewystarczająca sprawność funkcjonowania instytucji publicznych i jakość prawodawstwa w Polsce jest krytykowana przez obywateli, przedsiębiorców i polityków. Mimo że dostrzegają poprawę, podobne oceny polskiego otoczenia instytucjonalnego formułują zagraniczni obserwatorzy. Przedstawiane w artykule oceny zmian w otoczeniu instytucjonalnym oparte są na własnych badaniach prowadzonych od 1997 r. W artykule zaprezentowano zarys kanałów transmisji warunków w otoczeniu instytucjonalnym na bieżące i długoterminowe decyzje ekonomiczne. JEL: K00, D78, P37
EN
There are two main platforms on which the role and importance of the principles of procedural law can be observed. One concerns the basic functions played by these principles, i.e. the function that orders the process, the function that shapes the process model, the interpretative function and the cognitive function. The other platform concerns the reference sphere i.e. a sphere to which these principles are or may be of importance owing to the functions they have. Thus it comprises the sphere of making and enforcing law and its criticism, the law teaching and researching sphere, the practical sphere, the political-ideological sphere and last but not least the sphere of codifi ed and non-codifi ed law. This division however is not absolute. There exists, for example, convergence between the sphere of law enforcement and law practice as well as between the sphere of law criticism and law teaching or researching. A similar convergence may be observed between the law making and the political-ideological spheres. The two platforms cross over and create meeting points in which individual functions of principles in relevant reference spheres may be marked. At the law-making stage, the ordering function harmonises legal solutions adopted in a legislative act whereas at the law-enforcement stage it facilitates construction of a legal text. The shaping of a model of proceedings in administrative courts by principles means that these principles make it possible to determine the structure of institutions and procedural solutions in proceedings before administrative courts, while the interpretative function occurs only in the sphere of law enforcement and criticism. The cognitive function is mainly signifi cant for the law teaching and researching sphere, but also for the law practice, including criticism.
IT
Il Codice di Diritto Canonico del 1983 ha introdotto un elenco di doveri e diritti dei fedeli laici. È analogo agli elenchi caratteristici dei diritti e delle libertà fondamentali contenuti nei documenti di diritto internazionale e nelle costituzioni dei paesi democratici. L’ispirazione della Chiesa al diritto civile è stata una realtà sin dall’inizio del diritto canonico: prima attraverso il diritto romano, poi, nel mondo moderno, attraverso complesse codificazioni del diritto civile, e dopo il Concilio Vaticano II, attraverso le idee dei diritti umani universali. Una caratteristica specifica della Chiesa cattolica rispetto a uno Stato democratico è l’incorporazione del soggetto di diritto nella Chiesa attraverso il battesimo, ciò che porta con sé tutti i diritti e gli obblighi. In questo modo, il catalogo dei diritti e degli obblighi, che ora esiste nel codice, include principalmente un elenco di questi ultimi. I diritti sono invece messi in evidenza dallo Stato moderno. In effetti, lo Stato moderno impone pochi obblighi ai suoi cittadini; spesso si tratta solo di pagare le tasse e di obbedire alla costrizione dell’istruzione obbligatoria. Il presente articolo tratta dei singoli obblighi e diritti contenuti nel Codice di Diritto Canonico e li confronta con i corrispondenti obblighi e diritti contenuti nelle costituzioni. Il concetto di norme civili e canoniche è simile, soprattutto se ispirato alla legge naturale. I doveri dei fedeli, invece, rappresentano fini ecclesiastici specifici, e in questo caso è difficile stabilire un’analogia con il diritto civile. Soprattutto, la legge suprema della Chiesa è la salvezza delle anime, e lo Stato non ha un obiettivo così soprannaturale.
FR
Le Code de droit canonique de 1983 a dressé une liste de devoirs et de droits propres aux fidèles laïcs. Elle est analogue aux listes de droits et libertés fondamentaux contenus dans les documents de droit international et dans les constitutions des pays démocratiques. Le fait que l’Église se soit inspirée du droit civil est une réalité qui remonte aux origines du droit canonique : tout d’abord à travers le droit romain, puis, dans le monde moderne, à travers des codifications complexes du droit civil, et après le Concile Vatican II, à travers les idées de droits humains universels. Une caractéristique spécifique de l’Église catholique par rapport à l’État démocratique est l’incorporation du sujet de droit dans l’Église par le baptême, qui entraîne tous un ensemble de droits et obligations. De cette manière, ce catalogue des droits et obligations qui existe désormais dans le code comprend principalement la liste de ces dernières. Ce sont au contraire les droits qui sont mis en évidence par l’État moderne. En fait, l’État moderne impose peu d’obligations à ses citoyens; souvent, il ne s’agit que de payer ses impôts et de suivre l’enseignement obligatoire. L’article traite des obligations et droits individuels contenus dans le Code du droit canon et les compare aux obligations et droits correspondants contenus dans les constitutions. Les concepts de normes civiles et de normes canoniques sont comparables, notamment parce que toutes deux s’inspirent du droit naturel. Les devoirs des fidèles, en revanche, représentent un objectif spécifique de l’Église et, dans ce cas, il est difficile d’établir une analogie avec le droit civil. Par-dessus tout, la loi majeure de l’Église reste le salut des âmes, alors que l’État ne poursuit pas un but surnaturel de ce type.
EN
The Code of Canon Law of 1983 came up with a list of obligations and duties of the Catholic faithful. This list is analogical to those of the charters of fundamental rights and freedoms found in the documents of international law and in the constitutions of democratic countries. the inspiration of church law by civilian law was a reality from the very beginnings of the development of Canon Law: first by Roman Law, in the modern world by complex codifications of civil law, and after Vatican II also the idea of universal human rights. The specifics of the Catholic Church in relation to a democratic state is the incorporation of the subject of law into the Church through baptism which brings, above all, duties and obligations. Thus the catalogue which may now be seen in the Code contains first and foremost a list of duties, not rights, which are not stressed in the modern state. In fact, the modern state has very few demands; often just the payment of taxes and compulsory school attendance. The article deals with the individual obligations and rights found in the Code of Canon Law and compares them with their analogies in constitutions. The concept of civil and canonical norms tends to get closer primarily in the case of inspiration by natural law, whereas the obligations of the faithful represent a specifically ecclesiastical goals, for which no analogy in civil law can be found. After all, the supreme law of the Church is the salvation of souls, indeed, the state does not have such a supernatural goal.
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