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EN
At the end of the Soviet Union the White Sea area was probably the most technologically advanced military infrastructure in the world. Despite the political and military changes in the Arctic, it remains an area of the military activity of such powers as Denmark, Canada and Russia. In all relevant documents showing the Russian vision of the policy, a reference is made to the Arctic. The priority was to defend Russian interests in the region, through the expansion and modernization of the fleet of icebreakers, limiting military activities of other countries and securing Russia’s position on the northern sea routes. In the so-called Arctic doctrine of the Russian Federation the key elements for the protection of the interests of Russia in the High North are the following: a security resource base, maintaining the Arctic as a zone of peace and cooperation, protecting the environment and the use of the northern sea routes.
PL
Pod koniec istnienia Związku Radzieckiego rejon Morza Białego był prawdopodobnie najbardziej zaawansowaną technologicznie infrastrukturą militarną na świecie. Pomimo zmian politycznych i militarnych, Arktyka pozostaje obszarem aktywności militarnej mocarstw, m.in. Danii, Kanady, Rosji. We wszystkich istotnych dokumentach przedstawiających rosyjską wizję polityki pojawiają się odniesienia do Arktyki. Za priorytet uznano obronę interesów rosyjskich w tym regionie, m.in. poprzez rozbudowę i modernizację floty lodołamaczy, ograniczenie aktywności wojskowej innych państw, zabezpieczenie pozycji Rosji na morskich szlakach północnych. W tzw. doktrynie arktycznej Federacji Rosyjskiej jako elementy kluczowe dla ochrony interesów Rosji na Dalekiej Północy wskazano: zabezpieczenie bazy surowcowej, utrzymanie regionu Arktyki jako strefy pokoju i współpracy, ochronę środowiska naturalnego oraz wykorzystanie północnych szlaków morskich.
EN
Balkan Wars 1912-1913 were a milestone event in the history of the Balkans. They ending, started in 1878, process of expulsion of Turkey from its European possessions, and creating the possibility of realizing popular in this part of Europe slogan “The Balkans for the Balkan nations”. It should be noted that taking on the Balkan Peninsula events were with attention watched by the European great powers, because this part of Europe they are treated as a region of special economic and politic-military interest. This situation was dictated primarily by dynamic industrialization of Europe, which already in the middle of the nineteenth century led to the exacerbation of the struggle for access to the raw materials and especially to sales markets. In the context of the Balkans the essential importance had the rivalry between Austria-Hungary, which was seeking a safe and comfortable way to the port of Thessaloniki, and Russia, which was striving to change the status of Bosporus and the Dardanelles, for ensure grain exports through the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. It must be remembered that the Balkans and Turkey played an equally important role in the economic plans of other powers – Great Britain, France, and from the late nineteenth century also Italy and Germany. An equally important role played by political and military considerations. The entry of great powers in the so-called imperial era greatly influenced the intensification of the competition for the “undisputed leader” in Europe and the range of spheres of influence, and the crystallization of the opposing military-political blocks in the Europe, pay attention of politicians to those European countries, which was created the possibility of blocking the enemy actions and obtain tactical advantage. For obvious reasons, the Balkans have played in this rivalry special role. Although the imposition of all these factors complicated the situation on the Balkan Peninsula, the persistent tension between the great powers created Balkan states and nations the feasibility of their policy plans. Thus, in the era of the Balkan wars, they did not intend to follow the guidelines of European diplomacy, and taken by the great powers the efforts to save peace and acquisition of potential allies did not lead to the expected success, which clearly confirmed the events of WWI.
EN
Social, political and economic changes have taken place both in Israel and the Middle East in the last decade. Also the scope and character of great powers’ engagement in this region have evolved. The aim of this paper is to determine if Israel’s environment transformation from 2011 is significant enough to induce a major change in the Middle Eastern strategy of this state. In the first part, the main new determinants (on national and international level) of the Israeli foreign policy are depicted. In the second part, the key features of this policy in the recent years are analysed. The analysis focuses on: 1. combating threats to the national security, 2. cooperation with the regional actors, 3. reacting and inlfuencing great powers’ actions in the region.
PL
Ostatnia dekada przyniosła zmiany społeczne, polityczne i gospodarcze zarówno w samym Izraelu, jak i na Bliskim Wschodzie. Ewoluowały także charakter i skala zaangażowania mocarstw światowych w regionie. Celem artykułu jest stwierdzenie, czy zmiany zachodzące w środowisku Izraela od 2011 r. są na tyle silne, aby w znaczący sposób przekształcić bliskowschodnią strategię tego państwa. W pierwszej części, zarysowane zostaną najważniejsze nowe uwarunkowania zewnętrzne i wewnętrzne izraelskiej polityki zagranicznej. W drugiej, dokonana zostanie analiza głównych kierunków tej polityki w ostatnich latach: 1. zwalczania zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego, 2. współpracy z bliskowschodnimi aktorami międzynarodowymi, 3. reagowania i wpływania na aktywność mocarstw światowych w regionie
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