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Językowe środki neutralizacji śmierci w listach Jarosława Iwaszkiewicza do zmarłego Jerzego Błeszyńskiego

100%

Dyszak A. S.

Studia Językoznawcze. Synchroniczne i diachroniczne aspekty badań polszczyzny

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2019

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vol. 18

55-74

EN

The article contains an analysis of the letters written by Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz and addressed to his late lover Jerzy Błeszyński, and depicts the manner of ‘talking’ of the author of the letters about the addressee’s death so that it can be neutralised, i.e. its impact on the life of the writer will be weakened and/or the opposition between death (afact that took place) and life (in the ima gined world of the letters) will be abolished. The article may be placed in the sphere of re-search based on the method of stylistic grammar, and it deals with the questions that concern semantic phenomena and the manner of their formal-language creation. Iwaszkiewicz used the motif of the trip that never happened of Błeszyński to Surubai, Indonesia, to replace with it mentions of his lover’s death in the whole collection of the ‘posthumous letters’ In addition to coding it – the death – with words and expressions taken from the lexical field of travelling in the analysed text there are linguistic exponents of conceptualisation of death as an absence and separation of the dead person. In two letters Iwaszkiewicz refers to the death of Błeszyński as adream. In order to avoid talking directly about death the author of the ‘posthum-ous letters’ uses afew euphemisms. However, in Iwaszkiewicz’s letters there appear various linguistic tracks of adeath of aperson he was close to. He is aware of the fact that Błeszyński left for good, and at the same time he cannot believe it.

PL

Przedmiotem analizy w niniejszym artykule są listy Jarosława Iwaszkiewicza do zmarłego kochanka, Jerzego Błeszyńskiego, a celem opisu stał się sposób „mówienia” autora tych tekstów o śmierci ich adresata w celu jej zneutralizowania, tj. osłabienia jej wpływu na życie pisarza i/lub zniesienia opozycji między śmiercią (zaistniałym faktem) a życiem (w wykreowanym świecie listów). Artykuł sytuuje się w zakresie badań wykorzystujących metodologię gramatyki stylistycznej, a zawarte w nim rozważania dotyczą zjawisk semantycznych i sposobu ich formalnojęzykowej kreacji. Iwaszkiewicz wykorzystał motyw niedoszłego wyjazdu Błeszyńskiego do Surabai w Indonezji do zastąpienia nim – w całym analizowanym zbiorze „listów pośmiertnych” – mówienia o śmierci ukochanego. Obok konsekwentnego jej kryptonimowania za pomocą wyrazów, wyrażeń i zwrotów z leksykalnego pola podróży pojawiają się też w analizowanych listach językowe wykładniki konceptualizacji śmierci jako nieobecności i oddalenia bliskiej osoby. W dwóch listach pisarz mówi o śmierci Błeszyńskiego w kategorii snu. Chcąc uniknąć bezpośredniego mówienia o tym tragicznym zdarzeniu, autor „listów pośmiertnych” używa także nielicznych eufemizmów.W zachowanych listach Iwaszkiewicza pojawiają się wszakże różne językowe tropy śmierci bliskiej mu osoby. Wyrazy świadomości faktu, że Błeszyński odszedł na zawsze, przeplatają się z wyrazami niewiary w ten smutny fakt.

2

Demilitarization and neutralization – the case of the Åland Islands

67%

Brańka T.

Przegląd Politologiczny

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2017

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issue 4

189-204

PL

Demilitaryzacja i neutralizacja należą do katalogu szczególnych ograniczeń wykonywania zwierzchnictwa terytorialnego. Pomimo, iż są to rozwiązania stosowane w praktyce międzynarodowej stosunkowo często, to brakuje powszechnie uznanej definicji tych kategorii. Prowadzi to do wielu różnych podejść interpretacyjnych, co szczególnie wyraźnie widać w odniesieniu do demilitaryzacji. Klastycznym przykładem obszaru zmilitaryzowanego i zneutralizowanego są Wyspy Alandzkie. Ze względu na swoje strategiczne położenie kilkukrotnie stały się ważnym elementem politycznych rozgrywek pomiędzy mocarstwami w Europie, na przestrzeni ostatnich dwóch stuleci. Wyspy postrzegano bowiem jako swoisty klucz do realizacji bałtyckiej polityki i równoważenia sił europejskich potęg. Konflikty, które targały regionem w XIX w., doprowadziły do stopniowego wypracowania rozwiązań demilitaryzacji, a później neutralizacji archipelagu, co zostało ostatecznie uregulowane w 1921 r. w międzynarodowej konwencji i potwierdzone po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. Przyjęty wtedy status prawnomiędzynarodowy archipelagu zachował trwałość, a obecnie służy jako swoisty wzorzec efektywnej demilitaryzacji i neutralizacji.

EN

Demilitarization and neutralization are among the specific restrictions that apply to the exercise of territorial sovereignty. Although frequently employed in international practice, no generally accepted definitions are available for either of these concepts. The void has given rise to a host of interpretations, which vary particularly widely in the case of demilitarization. The Åland Islands are a classic example of an area that has been both militarized and neutralized. Owing to its strategic location, it has repeatedly become the focal point of political clashes between European powers over the last two centuries. The Islands were seen as a key to pursuing Baltic Sea policies and balancing the strengths of European powers. The conflicts that swept through the region in the 19th century led to the gradual improvement of methods to demilitarize and subsequently neutralize the archipelago. Its status was ultimately settled in 1921 by an international convention and recognized after the end of World War II. The international legal status granted to the archipelago at that time has persisted to this day and continues to serve as a model of effective demilitarization and neutralization.

3

Neutralizacja normy „nie kradnij” w genezie przestępczości nieletnich

60%

Stańdo-Kawecka B.

Archiwum Kryminologii

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1994

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issue XX

21-51

EN

The paper discusses the findings of a study aimed at an empirical verification of a well-known criminological concept: the Sykes and Matza concept of neutralization techniques from the classical trend of positivist criminology. What Sykes and Matza see as the factor of juvenile delinquency are mechanisms of justification of one’s own delinquent behavior. Reverting to functionalim, the authors assume a social consensus on the basic values and norms of behavior. Juvenile delinquents generally recognize the same values and norms as non-delinquent youth but, unlike that youth, they grow proficient in neutralizing those norms so as to prevent them from influencing their behavior. According to Sykes and Matza, norms are neutralized through finding and accepting justifications for one’s own deviant behavior. Five types of such neutralization techniques heve been distinguished according to the contents of those justifications: denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of the condemners, and appeal to higher loyalties. In their conception of neutralization techniques, G.M. Sykes and D. Matza mainly describe and classify the ways of excusing one’s own deviant behavior and provide but a perfunctory discussion of the mechanizm of neutralization itself. L. Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance proves useful in explaining the psychological mechanizm of neutralization of recognized norms. Assumptions of the conception of neutralization techniques and the theory of cognitive dissonance provided the grounds for hypotheses which were subsequently submitted to empirical verification. The subject was limited to neutralization of the rule “do not steal” interpreted as a ban appropriation on theft and a rule of respect for another person’s property. Criminologists have long questioned the desing of empirical study where achool youth are treated as non-delinquent and examined as a control group oppesed to juvenile delinquents in houses of correction or educational institutions. In the present study, three groups were examined: ‒ juvenile delinquents confined to a reformatory or home for detained juveniles by a judicial decision as perpetrators of offences against property (84 persons); ‒ school youth not involved in acts against another person’s property, called non-delinquent youth (70 persons); ‒ school youth involved in acts againts another person’s property, called actually delinquent (37 persons); The groups of “non-delinquent” and “actually delinquent” persons were distinguished from school youth by means of a self-report survey. Of the original hypotheses, only one was confirmed by the findings. The exemined groups appeared to differ significantly in their approval of the techniques of neutralization of the norm of honesty, the differences trending as expected. The lowest approval of statements expressing various excuses for breaches of another person’s property was found among the non-delinquent youth. The group that most often approves ot such excuses are wards of reformatories and juvenile homes; however, they do not differ much in this respect from the actually delinquent youth. All of the examined groups have similar priorities as to the separate types of excuses. The type accepted most often is “condemnation of the condemners”. In particular, a statement that “the police and judges are corruptible and malicious”enjoys great popularity. The types accepted least often, instead, are excuses consisting in “denial of injury” and “appeal to higher loyalties”. What could not be conformed are hypotheses as to absence of differences between the groups with respect to appraisal of one’s own honesty and acceptance of the rule “do not steal”. Non -delinquent youth appraise themselves much higher in terms of honesty than the remaining two groups. Wards of reformatories and juvenile homes, instead, appraise themselves somewhat lower than the actually delinquent youth. The non-delinquent youth show the strongest acceptance of the norm of honesty. The degree of acceptance of that norm among wards of reformatories is similar to that among actual delinquents, the former showing a somewhat stronger acceptance of the rule “do not steal” than the actually delinquent group. Another hypothesis that was not confirmed concerned a tendency to neutralize the rule “do not steal” once it has been violated; the method used here was projection where the respondents were to complete unfinished stories. Against expectations, the tendency to neutralize that norm once it has been violated appeared to occur much more often among school youth than among wards of reformatories and juvenile homes. Of the various methods of reducing the anxiety resulting from a breach of another person’s property, both groups of school youth most often suggested neutralization of the norm of honesty. Wards of institutions, instead, much more often mentioned methods other than neutralization of the violated norm: e.g., focus on the derived or potential profit, or focus on the absence of threat with any negative consequences from without. The study questioned the role of delinquent neutralizations as conceived by Sykes and Matza in the origin of juvenile delinquency. Unforfunately, the findings could not be interpreted explicitly. According to the theoretical assumptions made, a number of possible explanations of the findings can be suggested which at least party exclude one another. A new empirical study would be necessary to verify those explanations.

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1 Archiwum Kryminologii

1 Przegląd Politologiczny

1 Studia Językoznawcze. Synchroniczne i diachroniczne aspekty badań polszczyzny

1 Brańka T.

1 Dyszak A. S.

1 Stańdo-Kawecka B.

1 2019

1 2017

1 1994

Językowe środki neutralizacji śmierci w listach Jarosława Iwaszkiewicza do zmarłego Jerzego Błeszyńskiego

Demilitarization and neutralization – the case of the Åland Islands

Neutralizacja normy „nie kradnij” w genezie przestępczości nieletnich