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PL
Artykuł poświęcony jest problematyce dyrektywy Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady w sprawie zwalczania terroryzmu z 15 marca 2017 r. i jej transpozycji do polskiego systemu prawnego. Po wyjaśnieniu kwestii formalnych dotyczących zastąpienia przez dyrektywę obowiązującej dotychczas decyzji ramowej Rady w sprawie zwalczania terroryzmu, autor analizuje zakres przedmiotowy dyrektywy i wskazuje na jej miejsce w systemie prawnym Unii Europejskiej w kontekście zwalczania terroryzmu. Na tym tle autor prezentuje elementy polskiego systemu prawnego, wskazując regulacje pozwalające uznać, że Rzeczpospolita Polska dokonała transpozycji omawianej dyrektywy uznając, że kluczowe miejsce zajmują w nim trzy regulacje: kodeks karny, kodeks postepowania karnego i ustawa o działaniach antyterrorystycznych. We wnioskach autor, formułując uwagi de lege ferenda, zgłasza postulat uzupełnienia regulacji dotyczących jurysdykcji o kwestie związane z możliwością karania osób — obywateli RP i cudzoziemców — w związku ze zjawiskiem „turystyki terrorystycznej”.
EN
The article is based on the comparative and terminological analysis of selected examples from the Spanish and the Polish law. The author’s objective is to apply the legal comparative methods to the considerations about equivalents for Polish and Spanish terms and legal concepts. The introduction regards the placement of analized jurisdictions in the classification of legal systems in the world. The main argumentation consists of three parts. The first one refers to the nomenclature of connections between natural or legal persons and a determined legal system. The second section concerns the Inheritance Law and focuses on the legal theory of the concept of the reserved portion in both analized systems. In the last part the author describes the organization of company bodies contrasting the models of Polish and Spanish limited liability companies and joint-stock companies, with reference to the notions introduced in the EU-Law.
PL
Artykuł powstał na podstawie analizy prawnoporównawczej i terminologicznej wybranych przykładów z zakresu prawa polskiego i hiszpańskiego. Celem autorki jest zastosowanie metody komparatystycznej do rozważań dotyczących ekwiwalentów polskich oraz hiszpańskich terminów i instytucji prawnych. Uwagi wstępne dotyczą miejsca badanych porządków prawnych w klasyfikacji systemów występujących na świecie. Główny wywód składa się z trzech części. Pierwsza dotyczy nazewnictwa powiązań osób fizycznych oraz prawnych z określonym obszarem prawnym. Druga odnosi się do prawa spadkowego i skupia się na teoretycznoprawnym ukształtowaniu instytucji zachowku w obu analizowanych systemach. W ostatniej części zaś autorka koncentruje się na strukturze organów spółek kapitałowych zestawiając model organizacyjny hiszpańskich i polskich spółek akcyjnych oraz spółek z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, nawiązując do terminologii wprowadzonej przez prawo Unii Europejskiej oraz podejmując się analizy niektórych ekwiwalentów funkcjonujących w obrocie gospodarczym między Hiszpanią a Polską.
EN
Aleksander This (1803–1864), an outstanding Polish lawyer, arrived in Petersburg after the outbreak of the November Uprising. There he got involved in scientific work and in 1838 he published his article entitled Notice sur la coordination des lois provincionales de L’Empire de Russie in a French juridical magazine “Reuve étrangère et française de legislation”. The text presents the problem of codification of provincial laws on the Polish territories taken over by Russia during the annexations by the end of the 18th century. It includes the description and the assessment of the legislation of the Polish law in the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania. The author elaborates not only on the systems of laws that were in force and their classifications but also on the attempts to codify the law between the 14th and 18th centuries. He gives a detailed description of ordinary law, particular laws and auxiliary laws that functioned in former Poland. This critically evaluated lack of the codification of law, especially the failure of the codification in 1532, the so-called Rectification of Laws and The Collection of Juridical Laws by Andrzej Zamoyski from the years between 1776 and 1780. The advantage of the publication is the introduction of the Western European readers to the problems of the former Polish law.
PL
Aleksander This (1803–1864), wybitny polski prawnik czasów Królestwa Polskiego, po wybuchu powstania listopadowego znalazł się w Petersburgu. Tam zajmował się pracą naukową i w 1838 r. opublikował we francuskim czasopiśmie prawniczym „Revue etrangére et française de legislation” artykuł pt. Notice sur la coordination des lois provinciales de l’Empire de Russie. W tekście tym omówił problem kodyfikacji praw prowincjonalnych na zabranych przez Rosję ziemiach polskich podczas zaborów w końcu XVIII w. This zamieścił w nim opis i ocenę ustawodawstwa prawa polskiego w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej. Omówił też systemy praw obowiązujących i ich klasyfikacje oraz próby kodyfikowania prawa od XIV do XVIII w. Ponadto szczegółowo przedstawił prawo powszechne, prawa szczególne oraz pomocnicze, jakie funkcjonowały w dawnej Polsce. Krytycznie ocenił brak skodyfikowania prawa, a zwłaszcza niedojście do skutku kodyfikacji z 1532 r. tzw. Korektury Praw i tzw. Zbioru Praw Sądowych Andrzeja Zamoyskiego z lat 1776–1780. Walorem jego publikacji było przedstawienie czytelnikom zachodnioeuropejskim problematyki dawnego prawa polskiego.
EN
Background: Pursuant to Polish law, products for infants and young children constitute a special purpose food group, which is divided into three categories: infant formulae, follow-on formulae, and cereal-based foods and other baby foods. The ingredients lists for each product from every group are regulated by the regulation of the Minister of Public Health of November 22nd 2010. Aim of the study: An analysis of the contents of products for infants and young children commercially available in the Opole region. Material and methods: Food additives in 81 products were analysed, based on the contents provided by the producers. The food additives (categories of preparations) were used in accordance with the regulation on food additives and the regulation on special purpose food groups. However, some banned additives were treated as nutrients and sources of macroelements, in which case they were not listed as food additives. Results: The most commonly used source of calcium were the phosphate and carbonate salts. The hypoallergenic infant formula Nestle NAN 1 HAHA, Nestle NAN 2 HAHA and HUMAMANA 2 HAHA contained the fewest additives. Ready-made meals, which constitute complementary foods, did not contain additives. Drinks and desserts contained only L-ascorbic acid. Conclusions: Regardless of the manufacturer, the analysed products contained only substances which comply with the prevailing Polish and EU law. The least additives were found in modified hypoallergenic milks: Nestle NAN 1 HAHA and NESTESTESTLE NAN 2 HAHA and Humana 2 HAHA. Drinks and dessert jars contained only L-ascorbic acid (E300), and oat cookies for children contained potassium bicarbonate (E501).
PL
Wstęp: Produkty dla niemowląt i małych dzieci, zgodnie z polskim prawem, należą do żywności przeznaczenia specjalnego i są podzielone na trzy kategorie preparatów: do żywienia początkowego, dalszego i uzupełniające środki spożywcze. Skład produktów należących do każdej z kategorii jest regulowany Rozporządzeniem Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 22 listopada 2010 r. Cel pracy: Przeanalizowanie składów produktów żywnościowych dla niemowląt i małych dzieci, dostępnych w obrocie handlowym na Opolszczyźnie. Materiał i metody: Na postawie podanych przez producentów składów przeanalizowano substancje dodatkowe w 81 produktach. Dodatki (kategorie preparatów) do żywności zostały użyte zgodnie z rozporządzeniem dotyczącym substancji dodatkowych, jak i rozporządzeniem odnośnie do żywności przeznaczenia specjalnego. Jednak niektóre niedozwolone dodatki potraktowano jako substancje odżywcze lub źródło makroelementów. W takich przypadkach dana substancja nie jest oznaczona w składzie jako dodatek do żywności. Wyniki: Najczęściej stosowanym przez producentów źródłem wapnia były jego sole fosforanowe i węglanowe. Najmniej substancji dodatkowych zawierało mleko modyfikowane hipoalergiczne NESTLE NAN 1 HA , NESTLE NAN 2 HA i HUMA NA 2 HA . Dania gotowe, wchodzące w skład żywności uzupełniającej, nie zawierały substancji dodatkowych, a napoje i deserki w słoiczkach miały w swym składzie jedynie kwas L-askorbinowy. Wnioski: Poddane analizie produkty, niezależnie od producenta, w swoim składzie zawierały tylko substancje zgodne z prawem obowiązującym na terenie Polski i Unii Europejskiej. Najmniej substancji dodatkowych miało mleko modyfikowane hipoalergiczne NESTLE NAN 1 HA , NESTLE NAN 2 HA i HUMA NA 2 HA . Napoje i gotowe desery w słoiczkach w swoim składzie, jako substancję dodatkową, zawierały jedynie kwas L-askorbinowy (E300), a ciasteczka zbożowe dla dzieci wodorowęglan potasu (E501).
PL
Artykuł przedstawia polskie prawodawstwo pod kątem obecnych w przepisach prawnych odwołań do personaliów Jana Pawła II. Akty prawne zawierające literalne odniesienie do osoby Papieża Polaka różnią się zarówno tematyką, jak i zajmowanym miejscem w systemie źródeł prawa. Wśród nich znajdują się akty normatywne, akty o wątpliwej normatywności i akty indywidualno-konkretne, jak również – przyjmując inną typologię – akty prawa powszechnie obowiązującego (w tym akty prawa miejscowego) i akty prawa wewnętrznego. Autor omawia ponadto niewiążące uchwały okolicznościowe Sejmu i Senatu poświęcone Papieżowi, które przynależą nie tyle do systemu prawnego, co szerszej kategorii porządku prawnego. Odwołania do osoby Jana Pawła II w polskim prawodawstwie są głównie symbolicznej natury. Większość wymienionych w artykule aktów dowodzi szacunku prawodawcy wobec Jana Pawła II jako powszechnego autorytetu moralnego. Prawodawca przy pomocy rodzajowo różnych przepisów prawnych składa hołd Papieżowi. Pozostałe z kolei akty, w których znajdują się odniesienia do Jana Pawła II, są pragmatycznego i doraźnego charakteru, służąc zapewnieniu prawidłowego przebiegu papieskich pielgrzymek do ojczyzny. Autor na końcu opracowania artykułuje potrzebę badań jurysprudencji nad wpływem nauczania Jana Pawła II na procesy tworzenia i stosowania prawa w Polsce.
EN
The paper deals with the issue of pope John Paul II’s legal relevance in the Polish legislation. Legal acts that literally refer to the person of the Polish Pope very both as to their theme and their place in the sources of law system. Among them there are normative acts, acts of dubious normativity and individual ones, as well as – concerning another typology – acts of universally binding law (including local law) and acts of the internal management. The author also makes remarks on nonbinding commemorative resolutions of the Sejm and the Senate dedicated to the Pope, which belong not so much to the legal system, as to the broader category of the legal order. References to the person of John Paul II in the Polish legal system is largely symbolic in nature. Most of the acts mentioned in the article prove the legislator’s respect to the title character as a universal moral authority. The legislator with the aid of diverse legal provisions pays homage to the Pope. The other legal acts, in which reference is made to John Paul II, in turn are pragmatic and ad hoc, aiming to ensure the proper operation of the Pope’s pilgrimages to Homeland. Finally, the author formulates conclusions on the need for jurisprudential study on the impact of John Paul II’s teachings on the law-making and law-applying processes in Poland.
RU
В статье представлено польское законодательство с точки зрения действующего законодательства обращений к личности Иоанна Павла II. Законодательства содержащие буквальную ссылку на личность Папы-поляка различаются как тематически и занимаемым местом в системе источников права. Среди них находятся нормативные акты, акты сомнительной нормативности и акты индивидуально-специфические, а - принимая другую типологию - акты общеобязательного права (в том числе актов местного права) и акты законодательства. Кроме того, автор обсуждает, не обязывающие резолюции Сейма и Сената посвященные Папе, которые принадлежат не столько к правовой системе, как к широкой категории права. Обращение к личности Иоанна Павла II в польском законодательстве носят, в основном, символический характер. Большинство упомянутых в статье актов показывают уважение законодателя к Иоанну Павлу II как к моральному авторитету. Законодатель с помощью различных нормативных актов отдает дань уважения Папе. Другие, в свою очередь, законы, в которых есть ссылки на Иоанна Павла II, прагматичны и специального характера, служат обеспечению надлежащего проведения папского паломничества на родину. В конце публикации автор указывает на необходимость юридических исследований о влиянии учения Иоанна Павла II на процессы создания и применения закона в Польше.
EN
This paper presents a problematical issue regarding the right of a legal translator to „execute certified copies of documents drawn up in a foreign language, verify and certify copies of documents drawn up in a foreign language and prepared by another person”. After a brief commentary concerning the development of the institution and the sources of this right in other modern regulations, the meaning of the term ‘certified copy’ is discussed in the light of other binding legal acts. The term ‘certified copy’ used in relation to the profession of a certified translator under the Act on the profession of certified translators and the Regulation of the Minister of Justice on certified translators’ fee, and profession of a notary in the Act on Notary Public Law and the Regulation of the Minister of Justice on the maximum notaril fee are discussed. Finally, recommendations concerning proposed legislative changes and conclusions are presented.
PL
Opracowanie porusza kwestię bardzo problemową w zawodzie tłumacza przysięgłego -uregulowanie prawne, interpretację oraz stosowanie uprawnienia do „sporządzania poświadczonych odpisów pism w języku obcym, sprawdzania i poświadczania odpisów pism, sporządzonych w danym języku obcym przez inne osoby” przez tłumaczy przysięgłych w Polsce. Po wprowadzeniu historycznym, przedstawiającym źródła współczesnych uregulowań tego zagadnienia, przedstawiono pojęcie „poświadczonego odpisu” w innych aktach prawnych w celu odszukania zarówno jego pierwotnego, jak i współczesnego znaczenia. Następnie porównano „poświadczony odpis” w zawodzie tłumacza przysięgłego na podstawie Ustawy o zawodzie tłumacza przysięgłego i Rozporządzenia Ministra Sprawiedliwości w sprawie wynagrodzenia za czynności tłumacza przysięgłego oraz notariusza na podstawie Ustawy prawo o notariacie i Rozporządzenia Ministra Sprawiedliwości w sprawie maksymalnych stawek taksy notarialnej. Szeroko omówiono kwestie problematyczne dla tłumaczy przysięgłych oraz propozycje zmian i wnioski końcowe.
PL
Początki historii regulacji prawnych, dotyczących zawodu tłumacza przysięgłego w ustawodawstwie Rzeczypospolitej Polski sięgają pierwszej połowy XX wieku. Już początkowe akty prawne uregulowały prawa i obowiązki tłumaczy, które powielane były, z uwzględnieniem odpowiednich zmian językowych i ówczesnych realiów prawnych, przez kolejne dziesięciolecia aż do czasów współczesnych. Opracowanie stanowi analizę aktów prawnych, regulujących zasady dokonywania czynności przez tłumaczy przysięgłych w Polsce, które weszły w życie w latach 1920-1930, począwszy od Ustawy z dnia 16 lipca 1920 roku zmieniającej ustawę o postępowaniu karnem dla byłego zaboru austriackiego, poprzez kolejno obowiązujące rozporządzenia o tłumaczach przysięgłych oraz rozporządzenia w sprawie ich wynagrodzenia. Główną uwagę poświęcono kształtowaniu się regulacji prawnych w kontekście ich pośredniego wpływu na obecne Rozporządzenie w sprawie wynagrodzenia za czynności tłumacza przysięgłego i Ustawę o zawodzie tłumacza przysięgłego.
EN
The accession of Poland to the European Union in 2004 contributed to the development of a new, modern status of sworn translators, according to the European legal standards. The history of regulations concerning the profession of sworn translator in the Republic of Poland dates back to the first half of the 20th century. The rights and duties of translators set out in the primary legal acts, have been repeated (with relevant adjustments to the language and legal realities) over the following decades up to the present day. The authors analyze the historical legal acts enacted between 1920 and 1930 which regulated the procedures to be abided by sworn translators in Poland. The main focus of this paper is on the development of relevant regulations and their impact on both the present Ordinance on remuneration of sworn translators and the Polish Sworn Translation Act.
RU
Начало истории правовых регуляций, касающихся профессии присяжного переводчика, в законодательстве Польши достигает первой половины XX века. Уже первые правовые акты урегулировали права и обязанности переводчиков, которые потом повторялись с учётом соответствующих языковых изменений и правовых реалий, на протяжении десятилетий до настоящего времени. Данная работа представляет собой анализ правовых актов, регулирующих деятельность присяжных переводчиков в Польше, которые были изданы в 1920-1930 годах и взявшие начало с Закона от 16 июля 1920 года. Данный закон сменил Закон об уголовном процессе для бывшей австрийской аннексии путём последующих действующих приказов о присяжных переводчиках, а также приказов об оплате их деятельности. Основное внимание уделено формированию правовых регулирований в контексте их косвенного влияния на действующий Приказ об оплате деятельности присяжного переводчика и Закон о профессии присяжного переводчика.
EN
Although it has been 50 years since the constitution Gaudium et spes of the Second Vatican Council was published, the document is not out of date at all. The aim of the paper is to seek out and analyze the requirements towards legislation in the social matters, which are contained in the constitution in question. The points discussed in the paper are: relevance of law, directing law towards common good, safeguarding human rights, taking into consideration human dignity and not absolutizing the autonomy of law. As it was proven, Gaudium et spes still can be a valuable and vivid source of ideas for organizing social matters.
PL
Chociaż mija już 50 lat od promulgacji konstytucji Gaudium et spes, dokument ten jest nadal aktualny. Celem artykułu jest odnalezienie i przeanalizowanie wymagań stawianych prawodawstwu państwowemu w prawach społecznych, które zawiera wspomniany soborowy dokument. Tematami dyskutowanymi w niniejszym przedłożeniu są: aktualność prawa, nakierowanie prawa na dobro wspólne, zabezpieczenie praw człowieka, uwzględnienie godności człowieka oraz słuszna, lecz nieabsolutna autonomia prawa. Jak dowiedziono, Gaudium et spes wciąż jest cennym i żywym źródłem idei porządkujących sprawy społeczne.
9
Content available remote

Perspektywy prawa użytkowania wieczystego w Polsce

63%
PL
Wraz z wprowadzeniem w 1964 roku do polskiego prawa ustawy – kodeks cywilny, pojawiła się - w zakresie prawa rzeczowego - nowa możliwość władania nieruchomością gruntową, nazywana dzierżawą wieczystą. Mimo iż ówczesna myśl ustawodawcy dalece odbiega od obecnego rozumienia prawa cywilnego w tym zakresie, to jednak dzierżawa wieczysta jest nadal funkcjonującym sposobem zagospodarowania gruntów, będących we własności Skarbu Państwa lub jednostek samorządu terytorialnego. Autorzy artykułu starają się ukazać nie tylko obecnie istniejące możliwości korzystania z prawa użytkowania wieczystego w obrocie gospodarczym ale także wskazują alternatywne rozwiązania prawne, przy ewentualnej likwidacji tego rodzaju prawa rzeczowego w systemie polskiego prawa cywilnego.
EN
Along with introduction to the Polish law the Act - the Civil Code - there appeared, as far as the property law is concerned, a new possibility of estate possession called a perpetual lease. Although contemporary thought of legislator runs away from present awareness of civil law in this range, perpetual leases are still a functional method of land use that are the property of the State Treasury or local government units. The authors try to show not only the currently existing opportunities to exercise the right of perpetual use in trade, but also suggest legal alternatives, in the event of liquidation of such property right in the system of Polish civil law.
EN
Although it has been 50 years since the constitution Gaudium et spes of the Second Vatican Council was published, the document is not out of date at all. The aim of the paper is to seek out and analyze the requirements towards legislation in the social matters, which are contained in the constitution in question. The points discussed in the paper are: relevance of law, directing law towards common good, safeguarding human rights, taking into consideration human dignity and not absolutizing the autonomy of law. As it was proven, Gaudium et spes still can be a valuable and vivid source of ideas for organizing social matters.
PL
Artykuł obejmuje tematykę współpracy terytorialnej podejmowanej w formie europejskiego ugrupowania współpracy terytorialnej. Celem badawczym jest jego prawna charakterystyka na gruncie przepisów prawa unijnego. Za cel przyjęto także próbę odpowiedzi na pytanie, jak odnośne ugrupowanie jest uregulowane w Polsce, na Węgrzech i w Republice Słowackiej. W pracy wykorzystano dwie metody badawcze: metodę dogmatycznoprawną oraz prawnoporównawczą. Z przeprowadzonych badań wynika, że uregulowanie EUWT w Polsce, na Węgrzech i w Republice Słowackiej różni się, niemniej występują też elementy analogiczne. Poruszona tematyka jest istotna z punktu widzenia realizacji celów traktatowych przez państwa członkowskie UE, do których należy podejmowanie działań na rzecz rozwoju i spójności. Do tych działań przyczynia się podejmowanie współpracy w formie EUWT.
EN
The article covers the subject of territorial cooperation undertaken in the form of a European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation. The research objective is its legal characteristics on the basis of EU law. The aim was also to try to answer the questions how the relevant grouping is regulated in Poland, Hungary and the Slovak Republic. Two research methods were used in the work. The dogmatic and legal method and the comparative law method. The conducted research shows that the regulation of EGTCs in Poland, Hungary and the Slovak Republic differs, but there are also analogous elements. The topics discussed are important from the point of view of the implementation of the treaty objectives by the EU Member States, which is, among others, taking action for the development and consistency. Cooperation contributes to these efforts in the form of an EGTC.
EN
The article presents the problem of the reception of the Polish-Lithuanian institutions in Moldova of the first Mohyla Hospodars (1595-1611). This period was marked by both cooperation and conflicts between the Principality of Moldavia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund III and Jan Zamoyski tried to limit the right of the Moldovan rulers to punish treason by death, in order to form a social group of Moldovans supporting the rapprochement of the Principality with the Crown. For this purpose, they used the institution of Polish nobility and the suzerainty of the Polish king over the Principality. Also, the article examines the attitude of Moldovan Hospodars and boyars towards the reception of these Polish-Lithuanian institutional loans.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia problem recepcji polsko-litewskich instytucji w Mołdawii za pierwszych Mohyłów (1595-1611). Ten okres zaznaczył się zarówno współpracą, jak i konfliktami między Hospodarstwem Mołdawskim i Rzecząpospolitą Obojga Narodów. Zygmunt III i Jan Zamoyski starali się ograniczyć władzę hospodarską w zakresie karania zdrady w celu ukształtowania grupy społecznej Mołdawian popierającej zbliżenie Hospodarstwa z Koroną. Posługiwali się instytucją szlachectwa polskiego i suwerennością króla polskiego nad hospodarstwem. Artykuł bada też postawę hospodarów i bojarów mołdawskich wobec recepcji tych polsko-litewskich pożyczek ustrojowych.
EN
The purpose of this article is to research various kinds of innovations in intergenerational tourism in the light of the Polish law and the EU law. The author is making an attempt to outline the scope of ‘intergenerational tourism’. At the same time, he is suggesting a modified version of the classical division of generations in Poland over the last scores of years. Discussed are the innovations applied by tourist entrepreneurs to encourage intergenerational tourism development, as well as the kind of innovations that should be considered as vital for promoting intergenerational tourism in the future. Analysed were the acts of the Polish law and the EU law regarding tourism either directly or indirectly, in search for such regulations that would in any way contribute to the promotion of intergenerational tourism.
EN
Legal provisions significantly affect archival activities, including the state of preservation and availability of archival materials. This article presents the provisions of generally applicable law in Poland as of 1 September 2020, taking into account provisions directly related to the structure of archival institutions, the protection of archival materials and the processes of shaping, developing and sharing of archival resources. These provisions can be found in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland, the Act on National Archive Resources and Archives of 1983 with secondary legislation, a range of other acts and secondary legislation to them, numerous international agreements and legal acts of the EU. It is particularly interesting that there is an increase in the number of regulations which treat archives together with other cultural assets, which locate the activities of archives in the area of general access to information. A major challenge is the dispersion of these norms across many legal acts, as well as frequent and fragmentary amendments to them. Some areas of legal regulations require more in-depth research, especially in terms of their actual impact on the activities of archives. This reflection may be useful in methodological discussions, educating archive staff at all levels and formulating proposals for legislative amendments.
PL
Regulacje prawne istotnie wpływają na prowadzenie działalności archiwalnej, w tym na stan zachowania i dostępność materiałów archiwalnych. Artykuł syntetycznie przedstawia obowiązujące w Polsce w dniu 1 września 2020 r. unormowania prawa powszechnie obowiązującego bezpośrednio odnoszące się do ustroju instytucji archiwalnych oraz do ochrony materiałów archiwalnych, a także kształtowania, opracowywania i udostępniania zasobu archiwalnego. Regulacje te znajdują się w Konstytucji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w ustawie z 1983 r. o narodowym zasobie archiwalnym i archiwach wraz z aktami wykonawczymi, a także w szeregu innych ustaw i rozporządzeń oraz w licznych umowach międzynarodowych i aktach prawa Unii Europejskiej. Szczególną uwagę zwraca wzrost liczby uregulowań traktujących archiwalia łącznie z innymi dobrami kultury oraz lokujących działalność archiwów w obszarze zapewniania szeroko rozumianego dostępu do informacji. Dużym wyzwaniem jest rozproszenie tych norm wśród wielu aktów prawnych oraz liczne i fragmentaryczne zmiany w nich dokonywane. Niektóre obszary regulacji prawnych wymagają pogłębienia badań, zwłaszcza nad ich rzeczywistym wpływem na działanie archiwów. Niniejsza refleksja może być przydatna dla dyskusji metodycznych, kształcenia kadr archiwalnych na wszelkich poziomach oraz formułowania postulatów zmian legislacyjnych.
PL
Niniejszy artykuł podejmuje zagadnienia dotyczące porównania przepisów prawnych prawa polskiego i prawa szwedzkiego w zakresie warunków udziału wykonawców w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego. We wstępie omówiono regulacje prawne dotyczące zamówień publicznych w prawie polskim i wprawie szwedzkim. W kolejnych punktach wymieniono warunki udziału wykonawców w postępowaniu o udzielenie zamówienia publicznego w prawie polskim i w prawie szwedzkim. Podsumowanie wskazuje podobieństwa i różnice w omawianym zakresie.
EN
This article tackles the issue concerning the comparison of the laws of Polish and Swedish law regarding the conditions for participation of contractors in the procedure for awarding public contracts. In the introduction we discuss the regulations on public procurement in the Polish and Swedish law. The following points are listed the conditions for the participation of contractors in the procedure for public procurement in Polish law and the terms of participation of contractors in the procedure for public procurement in Swedish law. Summary shows the similarities and differences in the conditions for participation in the public procurement law Polish and Swedish.
16
63%
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2019
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vol. 14
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issue 16 (2)
167-178
EN
Preaching sermons and homilies is a key form of teaching the faithful and spreading religious worship, subject to the regulations of canon and secular law. The article focuses on Polish copyright law and regulations resulting therefrom enabling lawful creation of preaching, as well as the use of works, including preaching previously disseminated by other pastors. In this respect, the fair use institution should be included, including fair use, quotation, fair use in speeches, external presentations and lectures, and fair use during ceremonies and events.
PL
Głoszenie kazań i homilii jest kluczową formą nauczania wiernych i szerzenia kultu religijnego, podlegającą regulacjom prawa kanonicznego i świeckiego. 178 Artykuł koncentruje się na polskim prawie autorskim i wynikających z niego regulacjach umożliwiających zgodne z prawem tworzenie kazań, jak też korzystanie z utworów, w tym kazań wcześniej rozpowszechnionych przez innych duszpasterzy. W tym zakresie szczególne znaczenie posiada instytucja dozwolonego użytku obejmująca m.in. dozwolony użytek osobisty, prawo cytatu, dozwolony użytek w ramach przemówień, publicznych wystąpień i wykładów oraz dozwolony użytek podczas ceremonii i uroczystości.
PL
Niepracownicze stosunki zatrudnienia cywilnoprawnego są nadużywane podczas zatrudniania obywateli polskich i cudzoziemców. W przeciwieństwie do Polaków obywatele państw pozaunijnych eksponowani są na trudności językowe (prawo nie określa standardu tłumaczenia ich umów), a wniosek o zezwolenie na pobyt w ramach polskiego krótkoterminowego uproszczonego systemu zatrudnienia cudzoziemców (oświadczenie o powierzeniu pracy cudzoziemcowi na terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) nie zawiera informacji o różnicach między umowami cywilnymi i umowami o pracę. Opierając się na wynikach syntetycznej analizy teoretyczno-koncepcyjnej, autor stwierdza, że polskie prawo naraża cudzoziemców na podwyższone ryzyko dyskryminacji. Celem artykułu jest wykazanie, że różnica między długotrwałymi postępowaniami sądowymi i krótką ważnością zezwoleń na pobyt, a także powiązanie ważności wizy z zatrudnieniem u konkretnego pracodawcy pozbawiają cudzoziemców możliwości skutecznego osobistego udziału w postępowaniu sądowym w sprawach pracowniczych. Dotychczas w analizach dotyczących prac sezonowych wykonywanych przez cudzoziemców nie skupiano się na badaniu charakteru umów zawieranych z cudzoziemcami. Nowatorskim celem badania jest ustalenie, czy prawo polskie zniechęca pracodawców do nadużywania umów cywilnoprawnych zawieranych z cudzoziemcami czy też jest zgodne z Zaleceniem Międzynarodowej Organizacji Pracy nr 198, a także czy spełnia konstytucyjny standard dotyczący jasności prawa. Nowatorstwo poruszonej w artykule problematyki podkreśla fakt, że choć oświadczenia są najpopularniejszym mechanizmem zatrudniania cudzoziemców w Polsce i w Unii Europejskiej, to w dotychczasowych badaniach nie koncentrowano się na prawach człowieka beneficjentów tego systemu.
EN
Civil-law non-employment contracts are abused when employing Polish citizens and foreigners. Contrary to Poles, non-Polish citizens are exposed to linguistic difficulties (the law does not specify a standard of a translation of their contracts), and an application for Polish short-term simplified immigration employment system (a declaration on entrusting work to a foreigner in the territory of the Republic of Poland) does not contain information about differences between civil law and employment contracts. Based on a synthetic theoretical-conceptual analysis the author claims that Polish law exposes foreigners to a higher risk of discrimination. The article aims to prove that mismatch between excessively long court proceedings and short validity of residence permits, as well as linking validity of a visa with employment in a specific employer deprive foreigners from a possibility to effectively personally participate in court proceeding in their employment case. Previous analysis related to seasonal works performed by foreigners had not focused on the nature of the contracts. This article is, therefore, innovative research. It verifies if Polish law discourages employers from abusing civil contracts with such foreigners, if it is in line with the ILO Recommendation No. 198, and if it meets Polish constitutional standard regarding legal clarity. The innovativeness of the research theme can also be derived from the fact that although declarations are the most popular foreigner’s employment scheme in Poland and in the European Union, previous research have not focused on human rights of beneficiaries of the declaration scheme.
EN
The social and political changes in Poland led to abolition of Realsozialismus which is now being replaced with a democratic country governed by Rechtostaat (Art. 1 of the Constitution) from aspirations after national freedom and respect of human rights in public life. The problem of protection of individual freedom made itself particularly felt here; it is also subject of the present paper which discusses the protection of individual subjectivity in the light or the institutions of arrest and detention awaiting trial. Until quite recently, Poland was one of the many Communist countries where human rights were violated much too often, also on the occasion of arrest and detention awaiting trial. Many factors were conductive to this situation, such as faulty legislation; inadequate socjal consciousness; depreciation of the authorities, law and other norms; prevalence of repressiveness in dealing with social pathologies; and absence of social control of the activity of law enforcement agencies, the police and prison staff in particular. But the weakness of legal protection of individual resulted also from a strong relation of the activities of practically all governemental and social bodies those dealing with prosecution and investigation as well as administration of justice included, to politics. This political nature of functioning of those agencies, resulting monopolistic power of the Communist party, led to a limitation of the independance of the judiciary. The adoption of new political principles of Polish State and election of the new Parliament (on June 4, 1989), together with formaion of the non-Communist Cabinet, created the conditions for a new criminal policy based step by step on European standards. The institutions of arrest and detention awaiting trial well illustrate the pathology of functioning of the agencies of legal order and the direction of changes taking place in criminal policy. They also demonstrate a specific paradox; the Polish people’s great devotion to freedom and the simultaneous unfeeling tramling of that freedom. The two institutions have been discussed from the viewpoint of protection of human rights on both the normative plane and in the practice of the years 1980–1990. Arrest is one of the forms of coercion which consists in a short-term deprivation of liberty. The Polish legal system provides for procedural, preventive and administrative arrest. Each of these types has a separate legal regulation (procedural arrest, the Act of 19 April 1969 – Code of criminal procedure; preventive arrest, the Act of 6 June 1990 on the police and another Act bearing that same date on State Protection Office, together with their executory acts; and administrative arrest, the Act of 28 October 1982 on education to sobriety and control of alcoholism). Moreover, each type of arrest is to serve different aims (procedural arrest, protection of propriety of criminal proceedings; preventive arrest, protectton of order and public safety, human life and health, and property; and administrative arrest, control of alcoholism). Also different are the conditions of arrest, the agencies authorized to apply it, and the period for which a person can be detained. The present authors focus mainly on preventive arrest related to the administrative function of the police as guardian of order. That form was particularly abused and human rights were often violated in the course of its execution. Preventive arrest has recently undergone significant changes both in the normative sphere and in practice. As compared to the former one, its present regulation: 1. defines its legal grounds with greater accuracy; 2. broadens the detainee’s rights; and 3. introduced judicial review. This has contributed to the curbing of arbitrary police activities in this sphere. Duration of arrest is specified in the Constitution (Art. 87) and in the provision of Art. 207 of the code of criminal procedure. It cannot be londer than 48 hours from the moment of detention, and 24 hours in the case of administrative arrest (Art. 40 of the act on education to sobriety and control of alcoholism). Violations of these provisions have so far been frequent. In the case of procedural and preventive arrest, the rights of the detainee are the same. According to the valid provisions, the detainee has the following rights among others: the right to be informed in writing as to the time and reasons of arrest; the right to be advised as to the possibility of complaining to the court against the application of that measure, and to the public prosecutor against the way of its execution: the right to health care. The catalogue of the detainee’s rights is insufficient:  e.g. it does not contain the right, to legal assistance (conseul). What particularly impairs the protection of the detainee’s personal interests is the absence of by-laws concerning the execution of arrest in the police house of detention, as the duplicated set of provisions called ,,By-laws for Detainees”, introduced by an order of the Chief of Civic Militia in 1959, hardly comes up to the standards. The provisions now in force have broadened the range  of legal means of vindication of his rights that are at the detainee’s disposal. Particularly notable here is the  reintroduction of the institution of habeas corpus. Namely, the detainee has been granted the right to complain to the court against arrest (Art. 207 point ”a,, of the Code of criminal procedure) and to the public prosecutor against the way of execution of arrest (Art. 15.7 of the Act on the police). If the arrest has been obviously unjustified, the detainee is due indemnity from the Treasury and monetary compensation of moral  injury (Art. 487 of the Code of criminal procedure); the same concerns the situation where he has suffered damage or injury as a result of an improper execution of arest (Art.Art. 417-419 of the Civil code). Besides, the detainee may approach the court with a claim in virtue of protection of his personal interests (Art.Art. 23 and 24 of the civil code). In the latter half of 1990, arrest was executed in 798 police houses of detention all over the country, that is fewer by a whole 71,7 per cent as compared to 1989. The recent changes have made it possible to abolish the division of houses of detention into categories (of which there used to be three according to the duration of detention). The number of arrests amounted to over 500,000 a year at times (with the peak of 572,220 in 1982 – see Table 1). Starting from 1988, it gradually went down to nearly one-third of its original value which reflects above all the general  liberalization of the police approach towards crime and other deviations. In the period under analysis, the living conditions in the police jails were – and still are primitive and many a time offensive to human dignity. This has been confirmed by the present author’s own study and two surveys of those jails carried out by the National Ombudsperson. An acute problem is the right to apply constraint during and upon detention. It is regulated by provisions of the police Act and an Ordinance of the Council of Ministere of 17 September 1990 which specifies the situations, conditions and ways in which direct coercion can be used by the police. Without questioning the grounds for such coercion, not only the legal conditions  of its application but also the faults or even abuses in this sphere have been pointed out. What the authors find the most severe violation of human dignity are neither humiliating conditions of isolation nor illicit prolongation of detention but first and foremost beating of a person after he has surrendered to the power of enforcement officers. Cases of beating have again started growing in number this year (as has been found by the Helsinki Committee in PoIand and the National Ombudsperson). The activities of the public prosecutor’s office in this sphere have been criticised in the article. The paper also discusses the consequences of the introduction of Art. 209 of the Code of criminal procedure which made it possible to commit to the police jails persons detained awaiting trial (for up to ten days or three months), and even those sentenced to a prison term (of up to six months). This provision has recently been quashed, but the police press for its reintroduction. Until quite recently, the police jails were submitted to no supervision whatever. The public prosecutor’s. office remained passive and carried out but most perfunctory supervision, if any. This situation hardly served the protection of detainees’ rights. It was only improved in 1988 when the police jails were submitted to supervision by the Ombudsperson and later also by Commissions: of Administration and Internal Affairs of the Diet and of the Rule of Law and Human Rigths of the Senate, and by other agencies and institutions. Also pre-trial detention is a serious interference with human rights. It is one of the preventive measures provided for by the Code of criminal procedure, and at the stage of execution – by the Code of execution of penalties and the Ordinance of Minister of Justice of 2 May 1989 – by-laws of execution of detention awaiting trial. The discussed measure can be applied by the court, and before the indictment also by the public prosecutor. The present authors find the latter’s right to apply pre-trial detention contradictory to provisions of international law, the covenants ratified by Poland included (see Art. 9,3 of the International Covenant on Political and Civil Rights). The legal provisions fail to specify the upper limit of duration of pre-trial detention. The amendement of the Code of criminal procedure and the changed policy of application of dotention resulted in a fall in the number of those detained awaiting trial. There were 9,722 such detainees on July 31, 1989 (see Tables 4–5). There was also a radical drop in the number of persons detained for over 12  months: in 1990, as few as 0,03 per cent of those kept at the public prosecutor’s disposal had been detained for at least 12 months. However, an alarming upward tendency in the number of persons detained awaiting trial can be noted lately. Discussing the conditions for optional or obligatory pre-trial detention, the authors criticize some of them as estimative in nature, and thus involving the danger of arbitrary use of this measure. The reasoning has been based on decisions of the Supreme Court which is of particular importance for the effective protection of the detainee’s rights. There have been a lot of faults in the practice of application and execution of pre-trial detention which was frequently used as a means of pressure aimed at forcing a person to plead guilty or to denounce an accomplice. In Poland, the application of pre-trail detention is the domain of the public prosecutor’s office. In the years 1975–1989, prosecutors applied this measure in nine out of every ten cases. The population of houses of detention and other penitentiary institutions shaped differently starting from 1945. A comparison of changes in the numer in the number of convicted persons with those of persons detained awaiting trial shows that the latter population was more stable starting from the 1960’s and never changed as radically in number as that of prisoners. That was the case despite the increased frequency of application of detention in the 1970’s. What contributed to this situation above all was the shortening of preparatory proceedings. In the period under analysis, the total number of persons detained awaiting trial in a given year largely approximated that of prisoners in that same year, and showed the same fluctuations resulting from the aggravated or relaxed criminal policy in the country. The trends here have nothing in common with the actual dynamics of crime as such. The authors assume that the number of persons detained awaiting trial reflects decisions in the sphere of criminal policy rather than the actual changes in crime, the economic situation, or even severe political tensions. What is also characteristic of the practice in this respect is the fact of a faulty application of the discussed measure. In the years 1975–1989, at least every 111th and at most every 71st person previously detained awaiting trial was subsequently found not guilty by the court. In some years, there were over 500 such persons. The authors discuss preventive barriers defined by the Supreme Court which are to ban clearly unjustified detention. As follows from analysis of the practical application of conditions for pre-trial detention, the one most frequently quoted was the alleged considerable social danger of the crime. Repressive conditions prevailed over the purely procedural ones. ln order to find out about the actual dimensions of the problem of pre-trial detention, the authors consulted the data concerning the use of preventive measure not involving isolation in criminal proceedings (such measures being financial and non-financial pledge, police supervision, and safe-conduct; see Table 6). It turned out that in the years 1978-1990, preventive measures other than detention awaiting trial never amounted to more than 43,5 and to less than 18 per cent of all preventive measures applied. After the above-mentioned Art. 209 of the code of execution of penalties has been quashed, detention awaiting trial can only be executed in the houses of detention created and run by the Ministry of Justice (Art.Art. 4 and 83 of the code of execution of ponalties). On December 31, 1990, there were 65 such institutions in Poland. Twenty-seven of them had additional wards for convicted persons, while 48 prisons had special wards for those detained awaiting trial. Thus pre-trial detention could be executed in the total of 114 of the 151 institutions of the Prison Department. The houses of detention had the total capacity of  18,263 beds, while the number of detainees was 16,200; the discussed institutions were therefore populated in 88,7 per cent. The rights of the discussed category of detainees are specified in the Code of execution of penalties and by-laws of execution of pre-trial deteotion awaiting trial. What is particularly worthy of attention is the provision which states that the detainee enjoys rights that should at least equal those of a convicted person, and that the only limitations allowed in this sphere are those indispensable for securing the proper course of criminal proceedings, maintaining order and safety in the institution, and preventing mutual demoralization of detainees (Art. 86 para 1 of the Code of execution of penalties). A person detained awaiting trial has many legal measures at his disposal to protect his own rights in relation to the application and execution of detention. Thus the detainee can lodge a complaint with a supreme agency of the penitentiary  administration (Art. 48 para 4 of the Code of execution of penalties); with the public prosecutor and penitentiary judge (Art.Art. 27–33 and 48 point 5); to the  supreme State agencies, the National Ombudsperson included (Art. 48 point 5); he may apeal against a decision of the administration of the house of detention concerning the actual execution of that measure to the penitentiary court (Art. I4,l of the Code of execution of penaltes); he may also sue the Treasury for damage suffered during detention by guilt of functionaries of the penitentiary administration (Art.Art. 417–l9 of the Civil code); he may claim indemnity for obviously unjustified detention (Art.Art. 487–49l of the Code of criminal  procedure); and he may bring legal action by virtue of infringement of his personal interests (Art.Art. 23–24 of the Civil code). As shown by experience, the persons detained awaiting trial either never resort to some of these means or do that ineffectively. The living conditions of the discussed category of detainees are specified mainly in the by-laws of pre-trial detention. Many faults and shortcomings have  been found here in practice. Some of such faults were so drastic as to make it necessary to close several houses of detention in 1990 to mention just one example (the institutions were either liquidated or designed for repairs). The authors also assume an attitude towards the treatment of some categories of offenders (women, particularly dangerous detainees, persons with mental disorders, HIV carriers), and discuss the treatment of juvenile detainees. Ending the paper, the authors stress the gradual improvement in the treatment of detainees since 1989. It results both from the legislative changes and from a relatively liberal criminal policy. The legal and to some extent also the organizational conditions have been created for implementation of the rule of law. Further changes are necessary, though, including in particular the passing of a new Constitution and penal codes. The drafts of the latter suggest, many new solutions in the sphere of arrest and detention awaiting trial which would make those institutions meet the European standards. What can considered valuable are the trends towards limiting the application of the two measures, specifying the conditions of their application, importantly, extending the guaranties of detainees’ rights.
EN
Forfeiture of property is one of the oldest penalties in Polish law. Its origins can be traced in pre-state law, in the penalty of exclusion from tribe. Anybody could kill a person thus punished and destroy  his property, and would suffer no penalty for such acts. Later on, in early Middle Ages, the penalty of plunder was introduced: the offender’s possessions were looted, and his house burned. Destruction of the offender’s property as a penal sanction resulted from the conception of crime and punishment of that time. Crime was an offence against God, and punishment was seen as God’s revenge for crime – that offender’s house was destroyed as the place that had become unchaste, inhabited by an enemy of God. The penalties imposed in Poland in the 12th and 13th centuries were personal, material, and mixed penalties. There were two material penalties: forfeiture of the whole or part of property and pecuniary penalties. The utmost penalty was being outlawed which consisted of banishment of the convicted person from the country and forfeiture of his property by the ruler. Being outlawed was imposed for the most serious offences; with time, it became an exceptional penalty. In those days, forfeiture of property was a self-standing, as well as an additional penalty, imposed together with death, banishment, or imprisonment. As shown by the sources of law, forfeiture of property (as an additional penalty) could be imposed for “conspiracy against state” rape of a nun forgery of coins, cheating at games, and profiteering. Other  offences punishable in this way included murder, raid  with armed troops and theft of Church property, murder of a Jew committed by a Christian, and raid of a Jewish cemetery.  Data on the extent of the imposition of that penalty in the early feudal period are scarce; as follows from available sources, it was applied but seldom. The consequences of forfeiture were serious in those days. Deprived of property, the convicted person and his family inevitably lost their social and political status which  made forfeiture one of the most severe penalties. From  the viewpoint of the punishing authority (duke), forfeiture was clearly advantageous due to its universal feasibility; to the duke’s officials, it was profitable as they were entitled to plunder the convicted persons’s movables. In the laws of the 16th and 17th centuries, forfeiture was provided for: serious political crimes (crimen leaesae maiestatis – laese-majesty; perduelio – desertion to the enemy), offences against currency and against the armed forces.  As an additional penalty, it accompanied capital punishment and  being outlawed. The law also provided for situations where forfeiture could be imposed as a self-standing penalty. In 1573, the Warsaw Confederacy Act which guaranteed equality to confessors of different religions banned the inposition of forfeiture for conversion to another faith. Initially absolute – the whole of property being forfeited and taken over by the Treasury where it was at the king’s free disposal – forfeiture of  property  was limited already in the 14th century. To begin with, in consideration of the rights of the family  and third to forfeited property, the wife’s dowry was excluded from forfeiture. Later on, in the 16th century, the limitations concerned the king’s freedom of disposal of forfeited property. A nobleman’s property could no longer remain in the king’s hands but had to be granted to another nobleman. Forfeiture of property can also be found in the practice of Polish village courts; as follows from court registers, though, it was actually seldom imposed. European Enlightenment was the period of emergence of ideas which radically changed the conceptions of the essence and aims of punishment, types of penalties, and the policy of their imposition. In their writings, penologists of those days formulated the principle of the offender’s individual responsibility. This standpoint led to a declaration against forfeiture of property as a penalty which affected not  only the offender but also his family and therefore expressed  collective responsibility. The above ideas were known in Poland as well. They are reflected in the numerous drafts of penal law reform, prepared in 18th century Poland. The first such draft, so-called Collection of Jidicial Laws by Andrzej Zamojski, still provided for forfeiture. A later one (draft code of King Stanislaw August of the late 18th century) no longer contained this penalty. The athors argued that,  affecting not only the offender, that penalty was at variance with the principles of justice. The drafts were never to become the law. In 1794, after the second partition of Poland, an insurrection broke out commanded by Tadeusz Kościuszko. The rebel authorities repealed the former legal system and created a new system of provisions regulating the structure of state authorities, administration of justice, and law applied in courts. In the sphere of substantive penal law and the law of criminal proceedings, an insurgent code was introduced, with severe sanctions included in the catalog of penalties. Forfeiture of property was restored which had a double purpose: first, acutely to punish traitors, and second – to replenish the insurgent funds. When imposing forfeiture, property rights  of the convicted person’s spouse and his children’s right to inheritance were taken into account. Yet compared to the administration of justice of the French Revolution with its mass imposition of forfeiture, the Polish insurgent courts were humane and indeed lenient in their practice of sentencing. After the fall of the Kościuszko Insurrection, Poland became a subjugated country, divided between three partitioning powers: Prussia, Russia, and Austria. The Duchy of Warsaw, made of the territories regained from the invaders, survived but a short time. In the sphere of penal law and the present subject of forfeiture of property, that penalty was abolished by a separate parliamentary statute of 1809. After the fall of the Duchy of Warsaw, Poland lost sovereignty and the law of the partitioning powers entered into force on its territories. In the Prussian sector, a succession of laws were introduced: the Common Criminal Law of Prussian States of 1794, followed by the 1851 penal code and the penal code of the German Reich of 1871. Only the first of them still provided for forfeiture: it was abolished in the Prussian State by a law of March 11, 1850. Much earlier, forfeiture disappeared from the legislation of Austria. lt was already absent from the Cpllection of Laws on Penalties for West Galicia of June 17,1796, valid on the Polish territories under Austrian administration. Nor was forfeiture provided for by the two Austrian penal codes of 1803 and 1852. Forfeiture survived the longest in the penal legisation of Russia. In 1815, the Kingdom of Poland was formed of the Polish territories under Russian administration. In its Constitution, conferred by the Tsar of Russia, a provision was included that abolished forfeiture of property. It was also left in the subsequent Penal Code of the Kingdom of Poland, passed in 1818. Forfeiture only returned as a penal sanction applied to participants of the anti-Russian November insurrection of 1831. The Organic Statute of 1832, conferred to the Kingdom of Poland by the Tsar, reintroduced the penalty of forfeiture of property. Moreover, it was to be imposed for offences committed before Organic Statute had entered into force which was an infringement of the ban on retroactive force of law. Of those sentenced to forfeiture in the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuania, and Russia as participants of the November insurrection, few had estates and capital. A part of forfeited estates were donated, the rest were sold to persons of Russian origin. The proces of forfeiting the property of the 1830–1831 insurgents only ended in 1860 (the Tsar’s decree of February 2/March 2,1860). After November insurrection, the Russian authorities aimed at making the penal legislation of the Kingdom of Poland similar to that of the Russian Empire. The code of Main Corrective Penalties of 1847 aimed first of all at a legal unification. It preserved the penalty of “forfeiture of the whole or part of the convicted persons’ possessions and property” as an additional penalty imposed in cases clearly specified by law. It was imposed for offences against the state: attempts against the life, health, freedom or dignity of the Emperor and the supreme rights of the heir to the throne, the Emperor’s wife or other members of the Royal House, and rebellion against the supreme authority. Forfeiture was preserved in the amended code of 1866; in 1876, its application was extended to include offences against official enactments. The penalty could soon be applied – towards the participants of January insurrection of 1863 which broke out in the Russian Partition. The insurgents were tried by Russian military courts. After the January insurrection, 6,491 persons were convicted in the Kingdom of Poland; 6,186 of tchem were sentenced to forfeiture of property. Of that group, as few as 28 owned the whole or a part of real estate; 60 owned mortgage capital and real estate. The imposition of forfeiture on January insurgents stopped in 1867 in the Kingdom of Poland and as late as 1873 in Lithuania. The penalty was only removed from the Russian penal legislation with the introduction a new penal code in 1903. As can be seen, the Russian penal law – as opposed to the law of Prussia and Austria retained forfeiture of property the longest. It was designet to perform special political and deterrent functions as the penalty imposed on opponents of the system for crimes against state. It was severe enough to annihilate the offender’s material existence. It was also intended to deter others, any future dare-devils who might plan to resist authority. It was an   fitted element of the repressive criminal policy of the Russian Empire of those days. Forfeiture of the whole of property of the convicted person can be found once again in the Polish legislation, of independent Poland this time: in the Act of July 2, 1920 on controlling war usury where forfeiture was an optional additional penalty. At the same time, the act prohibited cumulation of repression affecting property (fine and forfeiture could not be imposed simultaneously). It originated from the special war conditions in Poland at the time. The ban on cumulation of repression affecting property is interesting from the viewpoint of criminal policy. The Polish penal code of 1932 did not provide for the penalty of forfeiture, and the Act on controlling war usury was quashed by that code’s introductory provisions. In the legislation of People’s Poland after World War II, forfeiture of property was re-established and had extensive application.
EN
The faithful of the Church are at the same time citizens of a state. As a result, they are bound by law of the two societies to which they belong. Education, as a very essential part of human good, is of interest to the two authorities: state government and church hierarchy. Unfortunately, relations between state and Church authorities in this field are not free of tensions. Both state and church lawmakers must be aware of the situation, and try to draft law that would expedite not a hostile interaction but rather cooperation in this field. The paper will present current legal regulations concerning education in Poland (Catholic Church and Polish state) and offer some postulates for both sides, helping to establish better relations and protect religious freedom.
PL
Wierni Kościoła są jednocześnie obywatelami państwa. W konsekwencji są oni związani prawem dwóch społeczności, do których należą. Edukacja, jako bardzo istotna część ludzkiego dobra, jest w polu zainteresowania zarówno rządu państwa, jak i kościelnej hierarchii. Niestety, relacje pomiędzy władzami państwowymi a kościelnymi w tym obszarze nie są wolne od napięć. Zarówno państwo, jak i Kościół muszą być świadomi tej sytuacji i próbować stanowić takie prawo, które nie będzie stymulowało wrogich relacji pomiędzy stronami, lecz będzie pomagało we współpracy pomiędzy nimi na przedmiotowym polu. Artykuł prezentuje obowiązujące regulacje prawne dotyczące edukacji w Polsce i zawiera kilka postulatów skierowanych do obydwu wymienionych stron. Postulaty mogą pomóc w ustanowieniu lepszych relacji pomiędzy państwem i Kościołem oraz przyczynić się do lepszej ochrony wolności religijnej.
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