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Socialisation of International Rules. Exploring Alternative Mechanisms for Securing Compliance with International Humanitarian Law by Armed Groups

100%
cholewinska a. j.
Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego
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2013
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vol. 7
317-336
PL
Rozprzestrzenianie się międzynarodowych konfliktów zbrojnych gromadzi wyzwania dla zakresu oddziaływania międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego (IHL), którego założycielską ideą było kształtowanie zasad zachowania państw w czasie wojen. Dlatego należy zadać pytanie, czy istniejące mechanizmy w zakresie międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego (IHL) są wystarczające, aby zapewnić zgodność w zakresie prawnym w odniesieniu do funkcjonowania ugrupowań zbrojnych? Ideą tego artykułu jest zbadanie, jak uspołecznienie, prze która autorka postrzega proces umiędzynarodowienia zasad lub reguł, tak aby zewnętrzny wpływ nie był dalej konieczny, w zapewnieniu zgodności, co w perspektywie może być źródłem do tworzenia długoterminowych spójnych zasad zachowań. We wstępie artykułu wyszczególniono ramy prawne mające zastosowanie w konfliktach zbrojnych oraz wyzwań towarzyszących ich wdrażaniu. W dalszych rozważania jest prezentowana dyskusja koncepcji uspołeczniania oraz jej przydatność w kontekście międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego (IHL) oraz działania ugrupowań zbrojnych. W dalszej części autorka przechodzi do prezentowania wybranych przykładów pozytywnej współdziałania z takimi ugrupowaniami w ramach tzw.„Deed of Commitment”, czyli inicjatywa aktów dobrej woli zorganizowana przez Szwajcarskie Organizacje Pozarządowe (NGOs), Geneva Calls. Ostatecznie autorka powraca do analitycznego obszaru badawczego i odnosi wyniki badan do ram działań w systemie ustanowionym przez „Deed of Commitment”, aby ostatecznie ocenić w jakim zakresie uspołecznienie oraz pozytywne zaangażowanie mogą zapewnić większe zrozumienie dla stosowania humanitarnych zasad. W podsumowaniu, stwierdza się, że uspołecznienie jest znakomitym narzędziem, który może uzupełniać mechanizmy funkcjonowania międzynarodowego prawa humanitarnego (IHL) oraz w szczególnych warunkach wnosić wartość dodaną do długoterminowych spójnych zasad zachowań.
EN
Proliferation of internal armed conflicts poses a challenge to the framework of international humanitarian law (IHL) as it was primarily designed to guide states’ behaviour while at war. Are the existing mechanisms available under IHL sufficient to ensure compliance with the law by armed groups? The purpose of this article is to examine how socialisation, by which I mean a process of internalising a norm or a rule so that external pressure is no longer necessary to ensure compliance, might contribute to producing long-term rule-consistent behaviour. I begin with the identification of the legal framework applicable to internal conflicts and challenges associated with its implementation. Following is the discussion of the ideas on socialisation and their utility in the context of IHL and armed groups. I then proceed to present a particular example of positive engagement with such groups under the so-called Deed of Commitment, launched by a Swiss NGO, Geneva Call. Finally, I return to my analytical framework, apply it to the system established under the Deed of Commitment, and assess to what extent socialisation and positive engagement may ensure greater respect for humanitarian rules. I conclude that socialisation is a valuable tool that may complement the existing mechanisms under IHL and, under certain conditions, contribute to long-term rule-consistent behaviour.
2
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Pakistański program nuklearny w kontekście typologii modeli proliferacji Scotta D. Sagana

100%
Kopeć R.
Athenaeum. Polskie Studia Politologiczne
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2015
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vol. 46
147-160
EN
The aim of the paper is to present the Pakistani nuclear program in the context of Scott D. Sagan’s models describing the causes of nuclear weapons proliferation. The typology consists of three models: the security, the domestic policy, and the norms. The author claims that the Pakistani program would be the most adequately present using the security model. The program was a response to both conventional and nuclear threat from India, which has been in permanent conflict with Pakistan.
3
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Proliferation of Democratic Education in Indonesia: The Influence Measurement of Tolerance, Multiculturalism, and Historical Awareness on the Democratic Attitude

100%
Sumardjoko B., Joebagio H., Sariyatun
The New Educational Review
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2018
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vol. 52
112-123
EN
This research aims to predict the direction of democratic education in Indonesia through the influence measurement of tolerance, multicultural sensitivity, and historical awareness of the democratic attitude. The multiple linear regression test, coefficient determination test, and model accuracy test were used to measure the influence of the predictors and the dependent variable. The research participants were 300 students, aged between 17 and 18 years, who were taken proportionally in Senior High School (SHS) 1 Surakarta, SHS 5 Surakarta, and SHS 6 Surakarta. Results showed a simultaneous and partial influence of tolerance, multicultural sensitivity, and historical awareness on the democratic attitude. The authors found that there is no diversion in the proliferation of democratic education in Indonesia, in which tolerance, multicultural sensitivity, and historical awareness have a positive influence on the democratic attitude. However, the authors stated that the association between tolerance and democratic education in Indonesia remains problematic, thus, it should be noticed in future research.
4
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Implikacje rozwoju cywilnej energetyki jądrowej dla europejskiego i światowego bezpieczeństwa

88%
Młynarski T.
Studia Politologica Ucraino-Polona
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2016
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vol. 6
152-161
EN
The article is an attempt to make an assessment of arguments for the development of civil nuclear power (non-carbon energy source) in the context of concerns on weakening the non-proliferation regime. The article analyzes dilemmas associated with the spread of civil nuclear power in the world and threats to international security (risk of utilization of dual-use technology for military purposes, trafficking of radioactive materials for the military or terrorists). Therefore, the key condition for the development of civil nuclear power is increasing the effectiveness of the NPT regime, including the acceptance of rigorous checks and inspections from IAEA officials by countries aspiring to join the nuclear program.
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Proliferation of illicit arms and control mechanisms in Nigeria: A critical socioeconomic analysis

88%
Awotayo O. O., Akinrinde O. O., Oyebade O.
Acta Politica Polonica
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2022
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vol. 53
5-14
EN
The study addresses the question of illicit weapons proliferation and many diverse control measures undertaken to counteract it in Nigeria. It further explores the reasons why Nigeria has become an appealing target for illicit weapons in the West African sub-region. Given the ease of in-flows and out-flows of illicit arms within the borders of the Nigerian State, this study contends that Nigeria’s firearms law is outdated and insufficient, especially as seen from the perspective of the Protocol to the arms trade agreement that is in force, and even in the light of the dynamics of security issues in the 21st century. The study demonstrates that the growing proliferation of illicit weapons in Nigeria has had economic, humanitarian and socio-political consequences. Therefore, it concludes that all the regional containment measures, from ECOWAS to weapons trading agreements, have not decreased the proliferation of illicit arms in Nigeria and that the Nigeria’s Firearms Act is outdated and unsuitable for the security needs of the Nigerian state, notwithstanding the problems faced by the security dynamics of the 21st century.
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Stanowisko Parlamentu Europejskiego wobec problemu proliferacji broni masowego rażenia i terroryzmu międzynarodowego

88%
Staszczyk A.
Przegląd Strategiczny
|
2016
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issue 9
211-222
PL
The paper presents the stance of the European Parliament (EP) on the gravest threats to the security of the EU, in particular, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the issue of international terrorism. Prevention of these threats lies predominantly within the competence of EU member states and its intergovernmental bodies. Such situation is implied by the fact that these issues fall within the scope of EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) within which intergovernmental collaboration mechanisms play a dominant role. This means that the EP’s role in the shaping of EU’s policy on the prevention of weapons of mass destruction proliferation and international terrorism is limited and basically confined to the expression of non-binding opinions in its resolutions. However, relevant resolutions passed by the EP, though not binding in legal terms, have political significance and allow the EP, in contrast to other EU’s institutions, to articulate its position in an unequivocal and clear way. This is possible since the EP is the only supranational EU institution that has democratic legitimacy and can claim the right to exercise parliamentary control over the EU’s policy with respect to the prevention of the gravest threats to European security. This is particularly vivid as it comes to the fight against terrorism which is also the subject of interest for the common space of freedom, security and justice which employs intragovernmental collaboration mechanisms.
7
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The impact of the proliferation of ballistic missiles technology on international security

88%
Indyk J.
Polish Political Science Yearbook
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2023
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issue 3(53)
165-179
EN
Due to the rapid development of technology after the Second World War, the way of conducting conflict has changed significantly. One of the branches of the armaments industry that has developed the most is space technology and related to it ballistic missiles. Undoubtedly, possession by international entity ballistic missile technology, especially in connection with weapons of mass destruction, increases the importance and role of this entity on the international arena. Therefore, the proliferation of this technology or ready-made missile systems has a significant impact on regional and international security. Therefore, in order to explain this phenomenon, the first part of the article describes the role of ballistic missiles for international security. In the second part, author describes varied ways how international actor, such a state or organization may come into possession of ballistic missiles and also the methods used to stop or limit proliferation i.e. counter-proliferation methods. The last part of this article describes the ways how selected examples states such us Egypt, People’s Republic of China, Israel, India, North Korea, Iraq and South Africa have come into possession of ballistic missile technology. In connection with the above, it will be possible to show what proliferation of this kind of technology looked like and may look like in practice.
8
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SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS PROLIFERATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

88%
Igbini M. D.
International Journal of New Economics and Social Sciences
|
2020
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vol. 11(1)
289-296
EN
Throughout the world, violence, delinquency and fear undermine the basic right of individuals to live in peace and fully benefit from the healthy and sustainable commu-nity. More worrisome is the seemingly uncontrollable proliferations of small and light weapons which remained one of the major challenges for security and sustainable development in Nigeria. It is against this backdrop that this study examines the threats that small arms and light weapons proliferation portends on the Nigerian security and sustainable development. They study relied on secondary data and utilizes the content analysis for interpretation of data. This study is anchored on the state failure theory to underscore situations that warrant recourse to small arms and light weapons. The study concludes that the debilitating economy, failure of the state to provide the basic necessities of life, corruption, high rate of youth unemployment and sluggishness among the state’s instrument of force viz: the Army, police etc., are some of the major factors that serve as challenges to meaningful efforts and policies at combating the menace in the country. This study therefore recommends among others that the gov-ernment in all levels should embark on poverty alleviation programs and provide em-ployment opportunities to unemployed youths. This will discourage youths from join-ing ethnic militias and other militant groups that pose threats to peace and security in Nigeria. Small arms, light weapons, proliferation, insecurity, sustainable development Przemoc, przestępczość i strach na całym świecie podważają podstawowe prawo jednostek do życia w pokoju oraz w zdrowej i zrównoważonej społeczności. Bardziej niepokojące są pozornie niekontrolowana proliferacja broni ręcznej strzeleckiej i lekkiego uzbrojenia, która pozostała jednym z głównych wyzwań dla bezpieczeństwa i zrównoważonego rozwoju w Nigerii. Na tym tle niniejsze badanie analizuje zagrożenia, jakie proliferacja broni ręcznej strzeleckiej i lekkiego uzbrojenia stanowi dla bezpieczeństwa i zrównoważonego rozwoju Nigerii. Badacze oparli się na danych wtórnych i wykorzystują analizę treści do interpretacji danych. Badanie opiera się na teorii niepowodzenia państwa w celu podkreślenia sytuacji, które uzasadniają użycie broni ręcznej strzeleckiej i uzbrojenia lekkiego. W badaniu stwierdzono, że osłabiona gospodarka, niezdolność państwa do zapewnienia podstawowych potrzeb życiowych, korupcja, wysoki wskaźnik bezrobocia wśród młodzieży i opieszałość struktur siłowych, a mianowicie armii, policji itp., to tylko niektóre z głównych czynników, które stanowią wyzwanie dla znaczących wysiłków i polityk walki ze wspomnianym zagrożeniem w kraju. W niniejszym badaniu zaleca się zatem między innymi, aby rząd na wszystkich szczeblach rozpoczął programy zmniejszania ubóstwa i zapewnił możliwości zatrudnienia bezrobotnej młodzieży. To zniechęci młodzież do przyłączania się do bojówek etnicznych i innych grup bojowników, które stanowią za-grożenie dla pokoju i bezpieczeństwa w Nigerii. Broń ręczna strzelecka, lekkie uzbrojenie, proliferacja, niebezpieczeństwo, zrównoważony rozwój
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HYBRID WAR(FARE): THE CHALLENGE OF CONTAGION

88%
Tyushka A.
Torun International Studies
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2019
|
issue 12
5-29
EN
Whereas scholarly accounts have mushroomed, especially since 2014, on what a ‘hybrid warfare’ is and is not, the phenomenon has taken a centerstage in international politics, thus confidently entering the everyday political vocabularies and practices in a growing number of states and societies worldwide. Drawing on the recent evidence of spatial and temporal diffusion of hybrid warfare theatres, this article argues that hybrid wars are highly contagious, thus prone to substantially challenge the international order, its normative and structural foundations. It therefore aims to explore the trends in the ideational spread and political uses of both hybrid warfare methods as well as the proliferating instances of hybrid wars fought across the globe. Finally, drawing on the empirical evidence and scholarly achievements in related fields of study, the article offers explanatory account of the mechanisms, conditions and dimension of hybrid war(fare) contagion. Among other featured cases, Russia’s hybrid war(fare) campaigns in Ukraine, Europe and further afield are employed as illustrative ‘archetypal’ cases.
10
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Proliferacja broni ręcznej strzeleckiej i lekkiego uzbrojenia jako czynnik przedłużający trwanie konfliktów zbrojnych

75%
Szpak A.
Studia Prawnicze: rozprawy i materiały
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2018
|
issue 1(22)
47-62
EN
The proliferation of small arms and light weapons is one of the major national and international security challenges. As such it constitutes the factor fueling armed conflicts and generating as well as increasing the human suffering of most of all civilians. Hence, it is so important to counteract this phenomenon which is indicated by the author of the article. The Arms Trade Treaty, adopted in New York on April 2, 2013, is described in more detail.
PL
Proliferacja broni ręcznej strzeleckiej i lekkiego uzbrojenia jest jednym z istotnych współczesnych zagrożeń dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego i międzynarodowego. Sanowi czynnik przedłużający trwanie konfliktów zbrojnych oraz generujący i zwiększający cierpienia przede wszystkim osób cywilnych. Dlatego tak istotne jest przeciwdziałanie temu zjawisku, na co wskazuje autorka artykułu. Szerzej opisano Traktat o handlu bronią, sporządzony w Nowym Jorku dnia 2 kwietnia 2013 r.
11
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The Origin of Modern Physical Science: Some Passages from A Theory of Wonder

63%
Munévar G.
Filozoficzne Aspekty Genezy
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2022
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vol. 19
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issue 2
1-41
EN
The triumph of the Copernican revolution is commonly associated with the introduction of the scientific method, mainly by Galileo. The nature of science presumably depends on the way observation passes judgment on theory. This is how, according to empiricism, the practice of science improves our worldviews. Some historically inclined philosophers of science, most notably Kuhn and Feyerabend, have insisted on paying attention to what Galileo actually said and did. Shockingly, he drives a dagger through the heart of empiricism: observation does not have such priority over theory, because observation itself assumes theory. This is what he argues when dismantling Aristotle’s Tower Argument, according to which a stone dropped from a tower falls straight down to the base of the tower. If this is so, the Earth cannot rotate, for it would carry the tower with it, making our observation of the stone’s flight wildly different. According to Galileo, to conclude that the stone really falls vertically requires the assumption that the Earth does not move – the theoretical issue in question. Given Galileo’s proper understanding of the nature of science, I view Feyerabend’s principle of proliferation as the realization that a good strategy for the latter is to elaborate radical alternatives and, on their basis, reconsider what counts as evidence. Moreover, a science produced by human brains should be analyzed on the basis of evolutionary theory and neuroscience. From that perspective, we may be able to defend a sensible notion of relativism. These considerations have led me to the main arguments of my new book, A Theory of Wonder: Evolution, Brain, and the Radical Nature of Science (Philosophy of Science, Vernon Press, Wilmington - Malaga 2021). I hope to entice the reader into a discussion of some of the issues developed there.
12
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Proliferacja jako narzędzie podtrzymujące ewolucję człowieka w świetle poglądów Paula K. Feyerabenda z okresu umiarkowanego

63%
Kilian K. J.
Filozoficzne Aspekty Genezy
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2013
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vol. 10
179-202
PL
W umiarkowanym okresie swojej twórczości Feyerabend utrzymywał, że wzajemne oddziaływanie zasad proliferacji i uporczywości może przyspieszać pożyteczne biologicznie mutacje oraz może być jedynym dostępnym środkiem służącym do zapobiegania stagnacji naszego gatunku. Celem tego artykułu jest rekonstrukcja poglądów Feyerabenda na to zagadnienie oraz nadanie im określonej interpretacji, pozwalającej uniknąć pewnych problemów, do których te poglądy prowadzą. Przekonanie, że można przyspieszać biologicznie pożyteczne mutacje za pomocą formułowania i bronienia hipotez, sugeruje, przynajmniej na pierwszy rzut oka, podejście lamarkistowskie - teorię zmienności ukierunkowanej. Tę myśl Feyerabenda da się również rozumieć w duchu teorii zmienności nieukierunkowanej, a więc na modłę darwinowską, co sugeruje wyrażenie "może przyspieszać". Obydwa ujęcia prowadzą jednak do poważnych trudności. Lamarkistowskie uważane jest obecnie za błędne, zaś zgodnie z darwinowskim zmiany adaptacyjne zachodzą bardzo powoli. Biologicznie pożyteczne efekty współdziałania proliferacji i uporczywości pojawić się mogą po niesłychanie długim okresie czasu. Jego myśl, że wzajemne oddziaływanie proliferacji i uporczywości może być jedynym dostępnym środkiem zapobiegania stagnacji naszego gatunku najlepiej jest rozumieć w duchu kulturowej ewolucji człowieka, która ma charakter lamarkistowski.
EN
In his early philosophy, Feyerabend claimed that the interaction between the principles of proliferation and tenacity may increase the tendency towards useful biological mutations. He also maintained that the interplay between the two principles may be the only possible way of preventing the human species from stagnation. I try to rectify some problems of Feyerabend’s approach. The claim that it is possible to increase the tendency towards useful biological mutations by means of generating and defending hypotheses seemingly implies Lamarckism, i.e. the theory of directed variation. However, it could also be incorporated into Darwinism, i.e. the theory of undirected variation (it is suggested by the phrase “may increase”). Both approaches lead to serious difficulties: Lamarckism is rejected by the mainstream biology; Darwinian adaptive changes are very slow. Biologically useful effects of interplay between proliferation and tenacity may come out after a very long time. Feyerabendian conviction that interaction between proliferation and tenacity may be the only possible way of preventing our species from stagnation should be understood in the light of human cultural evolution, and the latter is of course Lamarckian.
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