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EN
The active development of technology enbled mankind to realize new programs for the exploration of previously inaccessible areas of the universe hundreds of thousands of kilometers away. The emergence of this new field created the need to ensure its special legal regulation, which would correspond to the specific characteristics of this business. But now we have entered into a phase of re-evaluation of existing legislation of space and we must realise that alongside countries operating in space an has arisen entirely new entity - the private sector. Therefore it is necessary to ask ourselves whether the privatization and commercialization of outer space is legally possible and if it is not pre-cluded by existing treaties. The draft of the latest US Commercial Space Act is undoubt-edly a great advance for key areas of the private sector activity such as remote sensing and new space missions. It provides a sense of confidence for entrepreneurs by strictly regulating issues related to the supervision of private sector entities. However, on the in-ternational scene the question has arisen of whether this act is contrary to international law, especially principles contained in existing space law treaties.
Safety & Defense
|
2019
|
vol. 5
|
issue 2
1-7
EN
The scientific considerations presented in this paper concern threats to national security arising from the activity in outer space. The objective of this analysis is to identify these dangers and to propose solutions to minimize them. The theoretical research methods employed in this study are: synthesis, analysis, abstracting and generalization. In the course of the analysis, several modern threats were established, including anti-satellite and hypersonic weapons. Another important sphere discussed in the paper is the cyber security of satellite/communication devices and systems operating in space. With respect to satellite systems, the EA-18G Growler electronic warfare aircraft was presented as one of the concepts developed with the capability of disrupting their operation. The results from the conducted study emphasize the need to create a Space Domain Awareness (SDA) system, which is substantiated by the indication of natural threats that must beminimized, namely space debris, space weather and the possibility of collision with Near-Earth Objects. The presented considerations are concluded by the analysis of the legislative state regarding space security, which in reality accentuate the incompatibility of the existing laws with the emerging threats, and other issues concerning space law.
EN
At a time when the amount of natural resources on Earth is declining, the possibility of obtaining resources from space may play an important role. Private corporations use commercially the latest technologies to find an efficient way to extract raw materials from space. Therefore, there is a high probability that thanks to their application, in the near future, an economy of space resources will be created. The space can become a salvation for our civilization, although the use of its goods carries many threats and can cause many conflicts between states. The resolution of the United Nations General Assembly of 1963 regulates the issue of space resources and assumes that space and the celestial bodies are free for research and use by all states and are not subject to appropriation. However, the already established acts of international law do not seem to be sufficient for the approaching new reality. The international community faces the challenge of adjusting international law to protect the interests of states and prevent the risks associated with the distribution of goods. Naturally, the question arises whether we will be able to use space resources in a sustainable manner with such conflicting interests of states?
EN
The launch of the Soviet Sputnik in 1957 resulted in the emergence of two legal concepts concerning spacefl ight. The first of them concerned harmless passage through airspace subjected to the sovereignty of states, the second - recognition that at the height of the trajectory of a passage, space is no longer subject to the sovereignty of states (res omnium communis). In both cases, we are dealing with limiting the sovereignty of states. These issues have not been resolved to this day. The practice of spacefl ight has confirmed the freedom of spaceflight, although it has not resolved the issue of the upper limit of airspace. It is worth emphasising, however, that the decisive factor for the development of space law was the customary law that arose in 1957, because states did not protest and tacitly accepted the principle of a harmless flight.
EN
Nowadays, space management is widely recognized as an important area of global governance. The management of outer space is very complex, therefore activities of states in outer space realm are regulated by Outer Space Treaty. However, due to a number of ambiguities in the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty regarding the military use of space, loopholes for an increase in militarization and weaponization of space have emerged, thus causing serious problems with space security and affecting the sustainable use of space. Such shortcomings in the regulation of the military use of outer space by the Outer Space Treaty, including the lack of definition of certain terms and the establishment of appropriate procedures, allow the parties to freely interpret the relevant terms, and also conduct experiments in space, which contribute to the militarization and weaponization of space. Naturally this issue poses global security threat, because once the militarization or weaponization of outer space has started, it is almost impossible to reverse this process. In addition, the development of anti-satellite weapons and the dual purpose of satellites orbiting the Earth undoubtedly adds to the political and legal challenge of managing outer space. Therefore, this articles claims, that the legal regulation of outer space requires thorough revision in order to effectively address the issue of legal mechanisms in outer space.
EN
Th e article provides an analysis of the consequences of the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act 2015 on geopolitics of the Outer Space. In the first part is provided the critical review of development of the space law regime to the nowadays. This section mentions both international and national space legislation. Then uniqueness of the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act 2015 is brought up. Th e main part, and original contribution of the article is provided in following chapters which contain: 1) legal debate on possible violation of international agreements, in particular the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Among the Outer Space Treaty‘s key points are that it forbids claiming celestial objects and mentions that the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefi t and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind; 2) impacts of the implementation of the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act 2015 on international relations; 3) issue of commercialisation of space activities and transformation of space sector to so-called New Space.
EN
The article aims to help realize that to understand the changes which take place in space policy and space law, it is necessary to abandon the old course of thought and think the other way. The author exposes thesis that force to take a look at the law in a different way. He states that: all sources of international law (specified in Article 38 of the Statute of the ICJ) and EU law are in force in the Polish legal order, with the exception of international agreements, which only apply if they are ratified by the Republic of Poland and published in the Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland. The legal policy (conducted by the competent authorities in each forum based on the specific procedures) is the ius reflex, which inspires the development of lex and vice versa. The law applies beyond the borders of states’ jurisdictions (res communis) in the maritime and outer space and becomes a constitutional element of the new civilization (market and culture), which gradually affects the law within the jurisdiction of states (sovereignty and sovereign rights). The power of law ceases to guarantee the resolution of international conflicts, which forces the application of the law of force. The sine qua non condition to survive the new civilization is to protect humanity and to share resources fairly in the process of transformation.
EN
The text contains some general reflections on space law – a branch of law that is currently developing very rapidly.
PL
Komunikat zawiera kilka ogólnych refleksji na temat prawa kosmicznego - działu prawa, który się obecnie bardzo dynamicznie rozwija.
EN
Activities related to the active debris removal or the reuse of space wreckage pose a technological and legal challenge. On the one hand, there are many concepts or experimental techniques regarding the capture, deorbitating or redirection of space objects devoid of useful functions. On the other hand, there is a void filled with question marks, which should be filled by the norms of space law, either international, national regulations on that matter or in certain situations – contractual law. Particular importance in this case should be paid to the problem of technologies used in operations on space debris and wrecks, as well as technologies on board objects subject considered debris or wreckage, especially in the case of disassembly, regeneration or cannibalization of parts. In this context, considerations about the legal aspects of activities on space junk bring us to the field of patent law and related regulations. This work is intended to present how the territoriality of the physical area constituting a space object relates to patent protection on board such an object. The issues will be discussed with the assumption that entities from more than one country are involved in the operation on scrap metal or a space wreck. This will be important for considerations regarding the territorial limit of patent protection in the area constituting the quasite-territory of the state (space object) and for presenting the issue of extraterritoriality of patent infringement.
PL
Działania związane z czynnym usuwaniem złomu kosmicznego lub ponownym wykorzystaniem obiektów stanowiących wraki kosmiczne stanowią wyzwanie technologiczne oraz prawne. Z jednej strony istnieje wiele koncepcji czy eksperymentalnych rozwiązań dotyczących samego pochwycania, deorbitacji lub przekierowania obiektów kosmicznych pozbawionych użytecznych funkcji. Z drugiej strony pozostaje pustka wypełniona znakami zapytania, którą powinny wypełnić normy prawa kosmicznego, międzynarodowego, krajowego lub pewnych sytuacjach – kontraktowego. Szczególną wagę w tym przypadku należy zwrócić na problem technologii stosowanych przy operacjach na złomie kosmicznym i wrakach, oraz technologiach występujących na pokładzie obiektów podlegających takim działaniom, szczególnie w przypadku demontażu, regeneracji czy kanibalizacji części. W tym kontekście rozważania o prawnych aspektach działań na złomie kosmicznym sprowadzają nas na pole prawa patentowego i związanych z nim regulacji. Niniejsza praca ma za zadanie zaprezentować jak quasi-terytorialność obszaru fizycznego stanowiącego obiekt kosmiczny odnosi się do ochrony patentowej na pokładzie takiego obiektu. Problematyka będzie omawiana w założeniu, że w operacji na złomie lub wraku kosmicznym biorą udział podmioty z więcej niż jednego państwa. Będzie to miało znaczenie dla rozważań dotyczących granicy terytorialnej ochrony patentowej na obszarze stanowiącym quasiterytorium państwa (obiekt kosmiczny) oraz zaprezentowania problematyki ekstraterytorialności naruszenia patentu.
EN
The Green Book of the Polish Space Law Chapter 1 entitled „The subject of statutory regulation” is a collection of de lege ferenda postulates concer- ning the draft law on space activities. The Working Group on Polish Space Law thus participates in the governmental legislative work, inspiring the authorities and indicating the necessary legal solutions.
PL
Zielona Księga Polskiego Prawa Kosmicznego Rozdział 1 pt. „Przedmiot re- gulacji ustawowej” to zbiór postulatów dotyczących projektu ustawy o działalności kosmicznej. Grupa Robocza ds. Polskiego Prawa Kosmicznego uczestniczy w ten sposób w rządowych pracach legislacyjnych, inspirując władzę i wskazując pożądane rozwiązania prawne.
EN
The Space Act should perform various functions - first and foremost to regulate a defined matter. However, it is additionally worth treating it as a ‚regulatory sandbox’ for testing innovative legal solutions.
PL
Ustawa o działalności kosmicznej powinna pełnić różne funkcje – przede wszystkim regulować określoną materię. Warto ją jednak dodatkowo traktować jako „piaskownicę regulacyjną”, służącą do testowania nowatorskich rozwiązań prawnych.
12
60%
PL
W niniejszym artykule autorka przedstawia zasady prawa własności intelektualnej rządzące geodanymi. Głównym celem tego artykułu jest otwarcie tego problemu na dalsze badania i dyskusje. Koncepcje geodanych i ich prawnej interoperacyjności nie spotkały się dotychczas z tak dużym zainteresowaniem naukowym, jak powinny. Opracowanie jednego modelu dostępu do geodanych jest szczególnie trudne, biorąc pod uwagę, że geodane są wytwarzane i przechowywane w różnych środowiskach przy całej ich złożoności. Dlatego ważne jest, aby skonfrontować i omówić czynniki wpływające na licencjonowanie geodanych. Na tej podstawie autorka proponuje taksonomię niezwykle różnorodnych licencji na geodane.
EN
In this paper, the author presents intellectual property law policies related to geodata. The sole purpose of this paper is to open up this problem for further investigation and discussion. The concepts of geodata and legal interoperability have not received as much scholarly attention as they merit. Drafting one single model for geodata access is especially hard, given that geodata is produced and maintained in multifold environments. This makes it important to confront and discuss the factors influencing the licensing of geodata. On this basis the author proposes a taxonomy of the extremely diverse licenses for geodata.
EN
The debate over the legality of activities related to the extraction, utilization and sale of space resources often revolves only around the interpretation of Article II of the 1967 OST. As a rule, it no longer concerns the very concept of space mining or replenishment of supplies from the resources of the environment on the celestial body, but the meta-layer of the discussion on colonial analogies in the anthropocentric meaning. Such focus on the details of the topic leads to the loss of the broader context of the discussion on space resources, including the fact that they are not only the subject of rights, but also the basis of the nascent industry and activity that bring about a change in the architecture of space missions. Consequently, the outcome of the extraction and use of raw materials will be the creation of extraterrestrial materiel from their processed space resources, from which elements of equipment, spare parts and entire ready-made space objects will be produced. This will greatly reduce the need to bring up supplies as well as entire space objects or their components from the bottom of the Earth’s gravitaty well. Therefore, attention should be paid to issues such as maintaining legal authority and control over „objects” produced by a space object of a given state, which was placed on a celestial body in the traditional way (in the conventional sense, i.e. released from the Earth’s surface into space). Along with changes in the technologies used or possible to be used, the consequence will be the readaptation of space law to new circumstances, such as the generational sequence of space objects produced, the legal status of objects created from components and recovered objects, and objects using living organisms in their structure and systems operating on outside the facility.
PL
Debata wokół legalności działań związanych z wykorzystaniem lub wydobyciem i sprzedażą surowców kosmicznych nierzadko kręci się wyłącznie wokół interpretacji Artykułu II OST z 1967 roku. Z zasady nie dotyczy ona już samego pojęcia górnictwa kosmicznego czy uzupełniania zapasów z zasobów otoczenia na ciele niebieskich, ale meta warstwy dyskusji dotyczącej analogii kolonialnych w rozumieniu antropocentrycznym. Taka koncentracja uwagi na szczególe te- matu prowadzi do zgubienia szerszego kontekstu dyskusji dotyczącej surowców kosmicznych, między innymi tego, że nie stanowią tylko przedmiotu praw ale także stanowią podstawę rodzącego się przemysłu i działalności, które niosą za sobą zmianę w architekturze misji kosmicznych. Co za tym idzie, konsekwencją wydobycia i wykorzystania surowców będzie tworzenie z ich przetworzonych substancji pochodzenia pozaziemskiego, z których wytwarzane będą elementy wyposażenia, części zamiennych oraz całych gotowych obiektów kosmicznych. To ograniczy w dużej mierze potrzebę wynoszenia z dna Ziemskiej studni grawitacyjnej tak zaopatrzenia jak i całych obiektów kosmicznych czy ich komponentów. Dlatego należy zwrócić uwagę na takie kwestie jak utrzymanie władztwa prawnego oraz kontroli nad „obiektami” wytworzonymi przez obiekt kosmiczny danego państwa, który został umieszczony na ciele niebieskim drogą tradycyjną (w rozumieniu konwencyjnym, tj. Wypuszczony z powierzchni Ziemi w przestrzeń kosmiczną). Wraz ze zmianami w wykorzystywanych lub możliwych do wykorzystania technologiach, konsekwencją będzie readaptacja prawa kosmicznego do nowych okoliczności, takich jak ciąg pokoleniowy wytwarzanych obiektów kosmicznych, status prawny obiektów tworzonych z komponentów i obiektów odzyskanych oraz obiektów korzystających z organizmów żywych w swojej strukturze i układach działających na zewnątrz obiektu.
EN
Future visions justifying the merits of human colonization of Mars point to the need to establish a „backup” for both the human species and Earth’s current civilization. From the point of view of civilization and the species, colonists will be able to become a tool for long-term survival, however, even then they will be, as on Earth, political beings, and thus carriers and agents of the same social and political phenomena to which they are subject on Earth. This paper is an attempt to forecast the conditions under which the political system of extraterrestrial human communities may be formed, in a situation where the political, legal and biological heritage of humanity collides with the new and different natural and technological realities of the extraterrestrial environment.
PL
Przyszłościowe wizje uzasadniające zalety ludzkiej kolonizacji Marsa wskazują na potrzebę ustanowienia „kopii zapasowej” zarówno dla gatunku ludzkiego, jak i dla obecnej cywilizacji Ziemi. Z punktu widzenia cywilizacji i gatunku, koloniści będą mogli stać się narzędziem długookresowego przetrwania, jednakże nawet wówczas będą, tak jak na Ziemi, istotami politycznymi, a przez to nośnikami i czynnikami tych samych zjawisk społecznych i politycznych, którym podlegają na Ziemi. Obecny artykuł jest próbą prognozy warunków, w których może dojść do formowania się ustroju politycznego pozaziemskich społeczności ludzkich, w sytuacji kolizji politycznego, prawnego i biologicznego dziedzictwa ludzkości z nowymi, odmiennymi realiami przyrodniczymi i technologicznymi środowiska pozaziemskiego.
EN
The article aims to help realize that to understand the changes which take place in space policy and space law, it is necessary to abandon the old course of thought and think the other way. The author exposes thesis that force to take a look at the law in a different way. He states that: all sources of international law (specified in Article 38 of the Statute of the ICJ) and EU law are in force in the Polish legal order, with the exception of international agreements, which only apply if they are ratified by the Republic of Poland and published in the Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland. The legal policy (conducted by the competent authorities in each forum based on the specific procedures) is the ius reflex, which inspires the development of lex and vice versa. The law applies beyond the borders of states’ jurisdictions (res communis) in the maritime and outer space and becomes a constitutional element of the new civilization (market and culture), which gradually affects the law within the jurisdiction of states (sovereignty and sovereign rights). The power of law ceases to guarantee the resolution of international conflicts, which forces the application of the law of force. The sine qua non condition to survive the new civilization is to protect humanity and to share resources fairly in the process of transformation.
PL
Artykuł ma na celu pomoc w ugruntowaniu się przekonania, iż aby zrozumieć przemiany zachodzące w polityce prawa kosmicznego i w prawie kosmicznym należy odejść od konwencjonalnego punktu widzenia i pomyśleć odwrotnie. Autor eksponuje w nim tezy, które zmuszają do innego spojrzenia na obowiązujące prawo. Przedstawia, iż w polskim porządku prawnym obowiązują wszystkie źródła prawa międzynarodowego (wyszczególnione w art. 38 Statutu MTS) i prawa UE, z wyjątkiem umów międzynarodowych, które obowiązują tylko wtedy, gdy są ratyfikowane przez RP i ogłoszone w Dzienniku Ustaw RP. Polityka prawa (prowadzona przez kompetentne władze na każdym forum w oparciu o określone procedury) jest refleksem ius, które inspiruje rozwój lex i odwrotnie. Prawo obowiązuje poza granicami jurysdykcji państw (res communis) w obszarach morskich i przestrzeni kosmicznej staje się konstytucyjnym elementem nowej cywilizacji (rynku i kultury), które stopniowo wywiera wpływ na prawo obowiązujące w granicach jurysdykcji państw (suwerenność i prawa suwerenne). Siła prawa przestaje gwarantować rozstrzyganie konfliktów międzynarodowych, co zmusza do stosowania prawa siły. Warunkiem sine qua non przetrwania nowej cywilizacji jest ochrona ludzkości i sprawiedliwy podział zasobów w procesie przemian.
PL
The purpose of this article is to present the provisions of the draft Act of 10 July 2017 on space activities and the National Register of Space Objects, adopted by the Ministry of Development and Finance, in the context of solutions adopted in selected European countries and in international public law in the era of the development of the space sector (New Space). The main research hypothesis is the question whether the proposed legal regulation constitutes a solution meeting the challenges of the 21st century. The proposed regulations have been analysed in detail in terms of the rules of licensing of space activities, the registration of space objects and liability for damage inflicted by them, as well as in terms of third party insurance with reference to solutions adopted in France, Finland and Holland and the international standard. The formaldoctrinal method and the comparative law method have been applied in the analysis. The conclusion contains the assessment of the Polish space law provisions under analysis, which have been found to be in principle correct and relatively coherent. It has been stressed that, in general, the assumptions of the Polish draft act comply with the international law standard and the legal regulations of selected European countries. Nevertheless, the absence of regulations concerning, for example, the issue of suborbital space flights or space mining, and insufficient regulations concerning the protection of space environment (space debris) have been evaluated critically. A thesis is presented in the conclusion whereby, despite the deficiencies noted, the Polish draft space law is a real answer of the lawmaker to the challenges involved in the development of the space market and is a regulation appropriate for the 21st century.
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