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Ekonomista
|
2019
|
issue 2
163-193
PL
W kontekście klasycznej, neoklasycznej i keynesistowskiej teorii wzrostu gospodarczego dyskutowany jest problem struktury i wysokości podatków. Klasycy ekonomii i Kalecki opowiadali się za progresywnymi podatkami dochodowymi lub majątkowymi. Natomiast ekonomiści neoklasyczni oraz Kaldor opowiedzieli się za opodatkowaniem konsumpcji. Wyniki badań ekonometrycznych potwierdzają post-keynesowską teorię wzrostu opartą o mnożnik wydatków autonomicznych, a zarazem Kaleckiego koncepcję podatków progresywnych. Z przeprowadzonej analizy empirycznej wynika, że polityka podatkowa w grupie krajów OECD jest powiązana z wielkością skumulowanego salda rachunku bieżącego oraz wielkością długu publicznego Wyróżniono cztery typy polityk podatkowych: a) „dumping podatkowy” nastawiony na przyciągnięcie BIZ (Irlandia i Europa Środkowa), b) politykę wysokiego długu publicznego i zagranicznego, połączoną ze wzrostem podatków (Europa Południowa), c) politykę zbilansowanego handlu zagranicznego i rosnącego długu wewnętrznego, powiązaną z wysokim opodatkowaniem bezpośrednim i niskim pośrednim (Francja, Włochy), d) politykę „zubożania sąsiada” (Niemcy, Holandia, Szwajcaria, Norwegia), której towarzyszyła przeciętna stopa opodatkowania.
EN
In the context of classical, neoclassical and Keynesian theory of economic growth, the article discusses the problem of tax structure and height. Classical economics and Kalecki argued in favour of progressive income or property taxes while neoclassical economics and Kaldor recommended consumption taxes. The results of econometric research support post-Keynesian theory of growth based on autonomic spending multiplier and Kalecki’s concept of progressive taxes. The empirical analysis presented in the article suggests that tax policy in the OECD countries is related to the size of the cumulated current account balance and the amount of public debt. Four types of tax policy have been distinguished: (a) ‘tax dumping’ aimed at attracting FDI (Ireland and Central Europe), (b) high public and foreign debt linked with rising taxes (South Europe), (c) balanced foreign trade and rising domestic debt, combined with high direct and low indirect taxes (France, Italy), (d) ‘impoverish the neighbor’ policy, linked with average taxation rate (Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway).
EN
The study evaluates the relevance and validity of certain tax instruments used in economic practice. This involves instruments such as the possibility of selecting the form of corporate income taxation; more convenient dates and forms of advance tax payments; technology-related tax breaks; and tax-risk reduction instruments such as binding tax interpretations and advance pricing agreements (APA). The analysis was made on the basis of data from three tax offices in Poland. The author reached the following conclusions: 1) changes in eligibility criteria for using tax instruments are inconsistent with the rules of tax certainty and the fact that tax collection must be as inexpensive and efficient as possible; 2) more convenient advance tax payment deadlines do not prove to be useful because taxpayers tend to take little interest in them; 3) legal regulations accompanying tax privileges tend to reduce the effectiveness of these privileges in stimulating economic processes. The number and variety of instruments included in the Polish tax system testify to its strong stimulating function but also its complexity, Zbroińska says. Changes in the tax law system designed to either introduce or withdraw individual instruments lead to the destabilization of business activity by infringing on the rule of tax certainty. Some instruments fail to produce the desired results because access to them is restricted. Examples include plans to restrict the use of flat tax rates, limit access to the new-technology tax break, and impose steep fees on advance pricing agreements. The uncertainty among businesses leads to their marginal use of tax facilities related to advance income tax payments, the author says.
EN
The paper analyzes the potential benefits of unifying corporate income tax (CIT) in the new member states of the European Union in Central and Eastern Europe (EU10). An analysis based on a review of research reports and the author’s own research shows that equalizing CIT rates across the EU27 could harm EU10 countries, according to Piątkowski. On the other hand, unifying nominal and effective CIT rates in the EU10 at a lower level than in Western Europe-for example in the form of a minimum CIT rate-could produce considerable benefits, especially in the current stage of overcoming the global crisis by countries such as Poland, which aspire to quickly meet the Maastricht fiscal convergence criteria and enter the euro zone. In addition to the direct benefits of tax unification, for example in the form of higher tax revenues, indirect benefits could be generated by shifting international competition from tax policy to the quality of institutions, infrastructure and human capital, Piątkowski says. Reforms in these areas could considerably spur economic growth in the region.
EN
Industrial tax, based on archaic solutions, has aroused opposition since the beginning of its operating, especially in the context of the introduction of turnover tax which was given the features of consumption tax, and the maintained industrial certificates were given the features of revenue tax. It should also be remembered that the industrial tax acts were extremely complicated in their content, the legislator in one act tried to regulate as many economic issues as it was possible. Adopted solutions concerning industrial tax allowed the legislator to obtain permanent incomings to the state budget, the size of which, however, varied depending on the period and the social and economic situation, on average constituted 10% of the total revenues of the state budget. Attempts to rationalize the system of collecting industrial tax and breaking with the principle of unevenness of this tax, therein a mechanical combination of income tax and turnover tax, were made by the Act of 25 April 1938 on turnover tax. The tax reform was the result of changes in the tax system long awaited by entrepreneurs, mainly in the area of industrial tax. Unfortunately, due to the start of the war, the regulations did not enter into force.
EN
Purpose: Capital flows, tax competition, multinational companies and tax havens weakens governments’ ability to lead independent tax policy. This race to the bottom, especially in the case of CIT rate, seems to work. Aim of the text is to show that the governments are not as powerless as it is often claimed. Despite common opinion, nation-states retain a relatively significant autonomy in creating their own fiscal policies, including tax instruments. Size of funds kept in tax havens have not been growing for few years and international cooperation of tax authorities is more and more efficient in dealing with the tax fraud. Methodology: The study uses desk research method for theoretical reasoning to verify the research hypothesis. Moreover, the study seeks answering if the application of EU tax policies determines national tax policy. To that end, the authors utilize time series and cause-effect analysis, as well as quantitative research for the systematization of statistical information and regression analysis for the examination of statistical dependencies. Tax competition or the functioning of tax havens naturally limits the realization of the fundamental functions of fiscal policies, although the taxation remains one of the most crucial instruments of macroeconomic and income policy of national authorities. Findings: The most important data on public revenues structure in different OECD countries indicate that taxation remains one of the most crucial instruments of macroeconomic and income policy of national authorities. We also show that impact of FDI on hosting economy is not as positive as it is said to be. There is no relation between FDI and R&D spending and level of wages in hosting country is even affected in the negative way by the FDI inflow. Irrespective of the regulatory details introduced at the EU level – the basic factor affecting jets coordination in the field of cooperation between tax services brings effects both in terms of the current collection of tax liabilities and the creation of regulations that hinder tax avoidance and under statement assessment. Originality/value: The study focuses on an analysis of tax policy. The view that taxation of international corporations is fraught with difficulties finds support in the undeniable reality of tax competition.Moreover, a large and growing share of profits is transferred to low-tax places. The prospects for taxing international companies with positive rates seem unoptimistic. Therefore, it is essential to check how the national economy is affected by the FDI inflow in OECD countries.
EN
After Polish accession to the European Union in 2004, the VAT tax rate for most construction materials increased from the preferential rate of 7% to the basic rate of 22%. The legislator, aware of excessive fiscal burden to the taxpayer, introduced into the legal system the Act of 29 August 2005 on the refund for individuals of certain expenses related to housing construction. The Act was in force between 2006–2013, and was then replaced by the Act of 27 September 2013 on state aid in the purchase of afirst home for young people. The article presents an attempt to determine the effect of the law on VAT refund on the development of housing in 2006–2013, and also an attempt to assess the tax policy of the state in the field of housing. Furthermore, the article may give rise to a discussion of the merits of abandoning the institution of VAT refund for building materials.
EN
This article is intended as a retrospective survey of the comprehensiveness of the tax system, in the broad sense, and the US tax system, in a stricter sense, in terms of structuring model and application of tax levies, as well as the taxation applied to each public financial income category. The topic chosen is based on the idea that the US tax system is different from the European system, while also considering that the USA is the world leader in business, trade and investment, and seen as a true “streamliner” of the world. The US economy is strongly influenced by sectors that prevail at the federal level: industry, education, trade, telecommunications, and transportation. The research methodology used in this article consists of a comprehensive analysis of key concepts regarding tax levying activities, providing an explanation of the tax policy, a critical analysis of the US system in terms of tax legislation, and a history of international double taxation conventions concluded by the US with other countries, given that the USA may be an archetype (best practice) in terms of the double taxation agreements network, regarding both the number of countries with which they have been concluded, and the types of agreements on income and capital. In our opinion, the results of this study indicate the optimal technical framework used by the American system to identify and implement the most sustainable methods, techniques and procedures in order to reduce the scope of international double taxation on income and capital worldwide.
EN
This research is based on tax policy opinion survey data collected in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) among tax experts. A special focus of the survey was to investigate the consequences of the different institutional environments that exist between the two entities of the country. After having reviewed all previous tax reforms in B&H, the most interesting results suggest that respondents agree on the introduction of a progressive personal income tax (PIT) and excise duty on luxury products, the maintenance of personal and family allowances and the maintenance of the current value added tax (VAT) and corporate income tax (CIT) rates. However, differences exist in the respondents’ perceptions about the introduction of reduced VAT rates, the regressivity of the VAT, and giving priority to the equity principle over the efficiency principle in taxation. Probability modelling highlighted these differences and indicated inconsistencies in the definition of the PIT tax base, namely the comprehensiveness of the PIT base under the S-H-S definition of income.
EN
The article looks at the links between local government tax policy related to commercial real estate and number of businesses operating in the analysed group of local government units. First, the author examines the data on local government revenues from the tax on real estate between 2007 and 2012. Next, the results of the research on the tax rate of property tax on buildings used for economic activities are presented. The research was conducted in 2012 by the Bureau of Research. In the final section, the correlation between the property tax on commercial buildings and the number of businesses operating in the area is discussed.
10
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Local Tax Competition in Poland?

75%
EN
The concept of tax competition has been successfully applied in an analysis conducted in several European countries, but so far it has not been systematically tested either in Poland or in other countries of Central and Eastern Europe. There are two types of competition discussed in the article: classic competition for mobile tax base and ‘yardstick competition’, in which local politicians compete for political capital being related to the comparison of tax rates with neighbouring municipalities. It is expected that in Poland the ‘yardstick competition’ is more important from the classic competition for the mobile tax base.
EN
Corporate Income Taxes are considered to be harmful to the economic growth – their burden generates high deadweight loss. The constructions of Corporate Income Taxes in OECD countries are determined by two material factors: before 2009 it was international tax competition, and after 2009 – public finance imbalance. The article is devoted to the evolution of corporate income taxation. It contains the analysis of fiscal efficiency of the category of taxes and the analysis of nominal CIT rates.
PL
Podatki obciążające dochody przedsiębiorstw są uznawane za jedne z najbardziej szkodliwych dla wzrostu gospodarczego. Przed 2009 r. reformy podatkowe w tym obszarze determinowane były przede wszystkim międzynarodową konkurencją podatkową, zaś po tej dacie – nierównowagą finansów publicznych, jaka dotknęła większość krajów OECD na skutek dekoniunktury gospodarczej. Artykuł przedstawia ewolucję podsystemu opodatkowania dochodów przedsiębiorstw, w tym w szczególności analizę wydajności fiskalnej tego typu danin oraz wysokości stawek Corporate Income Tax - zasadniczej konstrukcji funkcjonującej w ramach omawianego podsystemu.
Studia BAS
|
2014
|
issue 1(37)
141-166
EN
The aim of the paper is to discuss the influence of tax policy on the level of investments of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Poland. At the beginning, the author presents some basic assumptions concerning the Polish tax policy and analyses the changes ongoing during the past years in the SME sector. The main focus is placed on the analysis of tax tools used by the government in this sector and the impact they exert on the level of investments made by small and medium enterprises. The author concludes with the results of his research on the impact of Polish tax policy on investments made by the companies from the sector.
EN
The article presents an analysis of changes in the tax efficiency of companies listed on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. After 2017, some changes to the tax law aimed at tightening the regulations on an unprecedented scale were introduced. The research conducted showed that since 2018 there has been a decrease in tax efficiency measured with effective tax rate (ETR) and current effective tax rate (CETR). On average, in 2018–2019, the efficiency measured with CETR dropped by 17.7%, the median by 14.8% compared to the previous years. In 2018 and 2019, the value of the CETR was the highest in the entire analyzed period, i.e. from 2012 to 2019. At the same time, the propensity of companies to create deferred tax assets is declining, and the effective tax rate is also growing. The changes mainly concern companies with average tax efficiency, large entities forming capital groups, and companies implementing capital investments. The article presents a discussion on the observed trends and formulates directions for further research.
EN
The article aims at assessing the diversification of business activity between a city and its suburbs, as well as identifying economic conditions taking place in a suburbanization process. Lower costs connected with running business activity are a significant element increasing the dynamie of its economic development. The authors attempt to exemplify the influence of the fiscal policy on the development of enterprises in the city and its suburbs on the basis of medium cities and their direct suburbs.
PL
Celem opracowania jest ocena zróżnicowania aktywności gospodarczej między miastem a jego zapleczem oraz identyfikacja uwarunkowań o podłożu ekonomicznym w przebiegu procesów suburbanizacji. Elementem dynamizującym rozwój gospodarczy w strefie podmiejskiej są niższe koszty związane z prowadzeniem działalności gospodarczej. Autorzy podejmują próbę egzemplifikacji wpływu polityki fiskalnej na rozwój przedsiębiorczości w mieście i strefie podmiejskiej na przykładzie miast średniej wielkości i ich bezpośredniego zaplecza.
EN
When aiming to create a basis for rational and efficient policies for the budget income of local communities, it is necessary to introduce certain changes in the existing approach towards the introduction of tax reductions and exemptions within the taxation system of local communities. It is crucial to organize and stabilize the policies covering local taxes and fees. In order to achieve the above, local communities should eliminate ineffective instruments which excessively burden the budget. The objective of the paper is to research and assess the character and financial aftermath of tax policies applied by local communities between 2005 and 2015. It is necessary to assess the impact of the determining factors. The analysis was performed in relation to particular local taxes, and finally, the tax policy as a whole was assessed. The aim of the research required a thorough review of the literature and an extended analysis in which some data from the Ministry of Finance was used.
PL
Przejrzysta, racjonalna, a także efektywna polityka podatkowa wymaga uwzględnienia spójnej strategii krótko- lub średniookresowej. Zbudowaniu podstaw do tak ukierunkowanej polityki podatkowej służy wprowadzenie określonych zmian w dotychczasowym podejściu do ustalania obciążeń podatkowych i stosowaniu preferencji fiskalnych w postaci zwolnień i ulg w podatkach oraz opłatach lokalnych. W tym dążeniu gmina powinna wyeliminować nieskuteczne, a obciążające budżet instrumenty dochodowe. Celem artykułu jest zbadanie i ocena charakteru oraz skutków finansowych polityki podatkowej prowadzonej przez gminy w latach 2005–2015 na tle niektórych determinujących ją czynników. Analizę przeprowadzono w odniesieniu do poszczególnych podatków lokalnych, a następnie dokonano oceny polityki podatkowej jako całości. Przyjęty cel badawczy wymagał dokonania przeglądu literatury przedmiotu oraz przeprowadzenia badań, w których wykorzystano dane Ministerstwa Finansów.
EN
The purpose of this paper is to compare and evaluate solutions in the field of taxation introduced in the period 2000-2011 in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary. The aim is also to determine which factors triggered tax reforms. The paper provides a comparison of changes in direct and indirect taxes and discusses the structure of tax revenues in the analysed countries. The last section discusses the impact of tax reforms on the competitiveness of economies.
PL
Celem artykułu jest porównanie i ocena rozwiązań wprowadzanych w zakresie podatków w latach 2000-2011 w Polsce, Czechach, Słowacji i Węgrzech oraz próba ustalenia, jakie czynniki były źródłem reform podatkowych. W artykule przedstawiono zmiany w podatkach pośrednich i bezpośrednich oraz omówiono strukturę dochodów podatkowych. W ostatniej części omówiono wpływ reform podatkowych na konkurencyjność państw.
EN
The following publication elaborates on the notion of international tax competition and international tax avoidance in the light of cross-border public policy. In terms of intercommunity relations, tax competition may be defined as a phenomenon consisting in application of various tax instruments for the purpose of developing a state's economy and prosperity by means of increasing competitiveness of the domestic business activity or attracting foreign investments. Tax competition is a natural consequence of the processes of globalization since in the reality of growing business interrelations, tax considerations exert more and more influence over investment decisions of holding companies. It reveals the dissonance between the interests of the particular member states in the EU and the interest of the European Union as a whole. Usually it is difficult to mark the border between a harmful and an advantageous tax competition.
PL
Przedmiotem publikacji jest problematyka związana z międzynarodową konkurencją podatkową i międzynarodowym unikaniem opodatkowania w kontekście polityki publicznej. W stosunkach wewnątrzwspólnotowych, konkurencję podatkową należy uznać za zjawisko polegające na wykorzystywaniu różnych instrumentów techniki podatkowej dla rozwijania krajowej gospodarki i dobrobytu poprzez zwiększanie konkurencyjności rodzimej działalności gospodarczej lub przyciąganie inwestycji zagranicznych. Konkurencja podatkowa jest naturalną konsekwencją procesów globalizacji, gdyż w świecie rosnących ekonomicznych współzależności opodatkowanie wywiera coraz większy wpływ na decyzje inwestycyjne holdingów. Stanowi ona wyraz rozdźwięku między interesami pojedynczego państwa Unii Europejskiej a interesem całej Unii Europejskiej. Najczęściej granica pomiędzy szkodliwą a korzystną konkurencją podatkową jest trudna do wyznaczenia.
PL
Artykuł przedstawia bieżące zmiany w ustawie o podatku dochodowym od osób prawnych, które weszły w życie 1 stycznia 2018 r. Zamiarem autora była rekonstrukcja generalnego kierunku wdrażanych reform, jak też ocena ich realizacji w znowelizowanych regulacjach. W tym zakresie przedstawiono pewne kluczowe dla konstrukcji podatku dochodowego zmiany, jak rozdzielenie źródeł przychodów (wyodrębnienie źródła przychodów w postaci zysków kapitałowych), wprowadzenie limitów w zakresie kosztów dotyczących usług niematerialnych, nowych zasad rozliczania w kosztach uzyskania przychodów wierzytelności nieściągalnych, czy wprowadzenie minimalnego podatku dochodowego od wartości obiektów komercyjnych. Zasadnicza teza opracowania wskazuje na to, że prawodawcy nie udało się w pełni zrealizować deklarowanych celów (zwłaszcza w zakresie uszczelnienia systemu opodatkowania dochodów), jako że część nowych regulacji może nasuwać wątpliwości z perspektywy konstytucyjnej, jak i unijnej.
EN
The aim of the article is to appoint general idea of the serious amendment made to CIT act, which have entered into force since 1st January 2018 and moreover to evaluate its normative realization. In this respect some crucial changes have been elaborated, such as the extraction of the capital gains as the separate source of income, minimal income tax concerning commercial buildings or disallowance of tax deductions for expenses linked to so called bad debts. Author’s main thesis is that the recent amendment does not fully comply with its goals, since taken measures raise doubts from both domestic (constitutional) and international (i.e. EU) perspective.
EN
The aim of the article is to analyse the conditions that should be met in the process of creating tax law in order to ensure legitimization of governance actions. Creation of tax law in line with transparent public tax policy requires it to be based on a consistent axiology appropriate for a democratic civil society. Authors assume that the tax law-creation should in the broadest scope set the standards necessary for its interpretation and application of the law and lead to the minimization of transaction costs of taxation and building the taxpayers' willingness to cooperate. In addition, as the analysis shows, the republican system is shaped on the basis of the most directly imposed obligations and the system requires cooperation of the government with the citizen and the involvement of the governed in the processes of exercising power.
PL
Celem artykułu jest przeanalizowanie warunków, jakie powinny być spełnione w procesie tworzenia prawa podatkowego dla zapewnienia legitymizacji działań władczych. Autorzy odnoszą się do procesu tworzenia prawa podatkowego, który wpisuje się w przejrzystą publiczną politykę podatkową i wymaga oparcia na jasnym i czytelnym systemie wartości właściwym dla demokratycznego społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Autorzy wychodzą z założenia, że to prawotwórstwo podatkowe powinno w najszerszym zakresie wyznaczać standardy interpretacji i stosowania prawa, prowadząc do minimalizacji kosztów transakcyjnych opodatkowania i budowania skłonności do współpracy ze strony podatników. Dodatkowo, jak wynika z analizy będącej przedmiotem artykułu, to przez najbardziej bezpośrednio nakładane obowiązki kształtuje się ustrój republikański, który wymaga współdziałania władzy z obywatelem i zaangażowania rządzonych w procesy sprawowania władzy.
EN
The article discusses the problems related to the use of tax reliefs on the level of progressive taxation of individuals. Here there were presented types, size and structur used in the tax years 2000-2011. A detailed analysis of the various groups of taxpayers and their nominal and effective level of tax burden was helped to identify the main benefi ciaries of tax preferences. The conclusion is that the lack of a clear effect of mitigating the progression in taxation in terms of tax preferences causes the uneven distribution of tax burden. Thus, during the period used system of tax relief was not optimal and could adversely affect the behavior of taxpayers.
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