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PL
This article presents a statistical and comparative analysis of four spelling conventions that represent different stages in the development of the Polish graphic system: the graphic system of a late-medieval manuscript (hand-written text), the standard spelling convention typical for the first half of the sixteenth century, the accepted and standard modern spelling of the first half of the twentieth century and the innovative set of graphic features used in electronic media. The characteristics of the statistical parameters encompasses dispersion and entropy in the first and the second row of letters, as well as in two-element sets (dyads). The analysis proves that: 1) inasmuch as the degree of differentiation of the distribution of signs, the history of Polish spelling convention prior to the solidification of the modern standard practice (accepted standard system) manifested a self-organizing tendency that was based on a reduction of letter signs and two-element letter combinations (ligatures) with the frequency of 1; 2) innovative solutions used in the set of graphic features characteristic for electronic media do not violate the statistical proportion between letters and their dyads operative and specific for modern standard graphic system 3) in respect to theory and information, the transformations of the graphic substance (graphic system) (within the analysed chronological timeframe) depended on neither progress (evolution) nor degradation.
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Argument Williamsona przeciwko KK-tezie

84%
Diametros
|
2017
|
issue 52
81-95
PL
KK-tezę wyrazić można jako następujące twierdzenie: "Jeżeli podmiot wie, że p, to zawsze jest w stanie wiedzy o tym, że wie, że p". Teza ta w historii filozofii przyjmowana była jako pewnik, jednakże we współczesnej epistemologii budzi ona liczne kontrowersje i jest istotnym elementem sporu dotyczącego modelu wiedzy. Jednym ze znaczących głosów przeciwko KK-tezie jest argument Timothy'ego Williamsona, opierający się na zaproponowanej przez niego zasadzie bezpieczeństwa wiedzy. Przedstawiona niżej polemika z argumentacją Williamsona składa się z dwóch części - w pierwszej pokazuję, że zasada bezpieczeństwa wiedzy jest niezgodna z modelem wiedzy Freda Dretskego. W drugiej wskazuję natomiast na nieścisłość zaproponowanego przez Williamsona sformułowania zasady bezpieczeństwa wiedzy, która pozwala na podważenie tezy, według której implikuje ona fałszywość KK -tezy.
EN
The KK-principle can be defined as follows: “For any subject x: if x knows that p, then she is always in a position to know that she knows that p”. This principle has been widely accepted in the history of philosophy. However, in contemporary epistemology it is considered controversial and regarded as an important part of the debate concerning the nature of knowledge. One of the arguments against the KK-principle has been presented by Timothy Williamson and it involves the so-called “safety principle”. In this paper, I argue against this account. My argument consists of two parts: in the first part, it is argued that the safety principle presented by Williamson contradicts Dretske’s account of knowledge. In the second part, I claim that the safety principle, as defined by Williamson, is not precise enough, which enables one to argue that it does not contradict the KK-principle.
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