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EN
The aim of this article is to present the crisis in the Republic of Mali, a country with the largest democratic advances in West Africa in the nineties. However, in 2012 and 2013 Mali experienced a crisis which had led to a military coup. The collapse of state institutions in Mali destabilized the entire region. The author of article devoted particular attention to the process of decentralization of power in the nineties. A series of reforms that gave hope to alleviate the Tuareg issue. The author tried to describe the origins of the crisis in Mali in 2012/2013. She focused on the issue of the Tuareg returning from Libya and an accurate description of the course of events. The declarations of independence of Azawad, the military coup, Tuareg denial by the Islamists or the entry of the French army to Mali are the key points of these events. The author mentioned also the presidential elections that bring a chance for stabilization in Mali. As the events in the Sahel have an impact on other countries in the region the author would like to present the effects of the crisis on the situation in Niger, Mali and Libya. The author’s aim was to present a forecast of opportunities and threats for Mali and the region. This topic is very dynamic, the situation in Mali seemed to stabilize but the violence erupted further in the northern part of the country.
EN
The Russian authorities used repressive measures against the Poles, who were active partic-ipants in the November 1830 and January 1863 uprisings. These measures included arrest and ex-pulsion to the inner provinces of the Russian Empire under the supervision of the police without the right to return to their homeland; the inclusion in military garrisons stationed in various parts of the empire; the direction to serve in the troops in the Caucasus, where military operations were conducted against the local highlanders and expulsion to hard labour and settlement in Siberia or in the internal provinces of Russia.The severity of repressive measures was determined by the fact that, in the exiled Poles, they saw a source of hatred spreading towards the tsarist government. The authorities feared the influ-ence of their thoughts on the liberal strata of Russian society, especially on young people. With such measures, they tried to suppress the restless minds. The imperial authorities also feared the reaction of Europe, which threatened Russia with “anathema” and intervention.
EN
This paper focuses mostly on the religious aspects of the Cossacks’ uprisings in the first half of 17th century (mainly the 1625, 1630, 1637 and 1638 uprisings), and discusses their impact on the origins, the course and following peace negotiations as well. The paper is based mostly on Cossack primary sources like manifestos, proclamations issued by the leaders, together with the directions which were to be followed during the peace talks, and the not Cossack sources as well. They prove how the religious aspects, namely the appeals to defend the persecuted orthodox confession, contributed to the character of the developments. Another question was, to what extent the religious engagement of the Cossacks uprisings at that time was caused by a sincere concern for the Orthodox Church situation, or perhaps there were other reasons, not having much in common with the faith. The analysis discusses also the Cossack delegates’ actions and policy on the Commonwealth Sejm in the years 1631–33, during which they firmly demanded restoration of the status the Orthodox Church had before 1596.
PL
Apart from historical studies and monographs, cultural initiatives are an important way of commemorating the Greater Poland Uprising of 1918-1919. Among such undertakings, literary works and products of visual arts are predominant. The greatest number of those are created on round anniversaries of this armed effort. One of their prominent features is realism, as they are intended for the broadest audience.  
PL
Okres od roku 1792 do śmierci (1794) był dynamicznym czasem w karierze Józefa Kazimierza Kossakowskiego. Odegrał on ważną rolę w organizacji konfederacji na Litwie. Razem z bratem Szymonem zaprowadził na Litwie rządy terroru, które przerodziły się w grabież majątku przeciwników. Kossakowscy przyczynili się do zatwierdzenia przez sejm III rozbioru Polski (1793). Nie mając odwrotu, Józef Kazimierz wiedział, że polegać może tylko na rosyjskich protektorach. Próbował więc zrobić wszystko, by spacyfikować Warszawę, gdzie dało się już odczuć przyspieszenie prac konspiracyjnych. Rady biskupa, by w razie problemów wystąpić zbrojnie przeciwko ludności stolicy, pogrążyły go. Wybuch powstania zastał Kossakowskiego w Warszawie. Po krótkim pobycie w więzieniu i pod wpływem warszawskich mieszczan został skazany na śmierć i powieszony – podobnie jak jego brat Szymon, stracony wcześniej w Wilnie. Tragiczny koniec nie może jednak przesłonić wielowymiarowości postaci Józefa Kazimierza Kossakowskiego, oświeconego sarmaty, którego karierę należy rozpatrywać w szerszym kontekście.
EN
The period between 1792 and the hanging of Józef Kazimierz Kossakowski in 1794 was dynamic in his career. He played an important role in fast organisation of the confederation in Lithuania. Later, along with his brother Szymon, they established the rule of political terror which due to the emergency acts turned into looting of their enemies’ properties. Kossakowski brothers became problematic to the point that a new Russian envoy Jakob Sievers decided to finish their ruling. It was a partial success though, because the brothers were needed to legitimize the partition of Poland on the Grodno Sejm. They had contributed to it a lot, evoking even more hatred towards them. Having no possibility to turn back, Józef Kazimierz knew that he could rely only on Russian protectors. He tried then to do everything to pacify Warsaw, where one could feel the acceleration of conspiratorial work. The advices given by the Bishop to, in case of problems, use armed forces against the citizens of the capital city, finally plunged him. The uprising’s breakout found Kossakowski in Warsaw. After a short time in prison, under the pressure of citizens, he was sentenced to death and hanged, along with his brother, who had been killed in Wilno. However, this tragic ending cannot overshadow many dimensions of the character of Józef Kazimierz Kossakowski, an enlightened Sarmatian, whose career should be considered in a broader context.
EN
This paper focuses on the complicated relations between medieval towns and the ruling elites in what is now Belgium and the Netherlands. It is illustrated by the uprising that broke out against the local elected bishop John III of Bavaria in Liège and was bloodily suppressed. Even though John succeeded in controlling Liège by force, he abandoned the town and its surrounding area when he was offered a very uncertain possibility of governing elsewhere a few years later. This is thus one of many examples in which there is no proper settlement of relations between the ruler and the town in this area.
EN
The drama Ostatni koncert (The Last Concert) (1960) by Stanisława Fleszarowa-Muskat, originally written as a radio play, sits on the border between popular and fictional literature. The text was intended for a wide audience. The plot focuses on a single event – Frédéric Chopin’s last concert in Warsaw, just before his departure to France, which took place on October 11, 1830. Youth, as it was understood by the romantics, turns out to be a time that shaped Chopin’s artistic personality. In this drama, the independence background is important as it highlights Chopin’s ties to the fate of his homeland, which gives his music a patriotic and revolutionary dimension. In sounds, Chopin’s brilliant music expresses the essence of the Polish soul: its nobility and love of freedom. Chopin’s concert took place at a turning point both for the composer and for the nation whose spirit he expressed through sounds. The drama about Chopin, the national genius, is at the same time a drama about a national community that acquires its identity by identifying with his music.
EN
The article is a brief survey and evaluation of historical research on Poznań 1956 protests, the political change in October 1956, and the year in general. An important gap was filled by the publication of Piotr Grzelczak’s book on the long-term consequences of the Poznań protests, and the conflict over its remembrance between government representatives and local inhabitants of the region, since the protests were one of the defining moments in recent history of Poznań. The article also includes a summary of the controversy between historians over the importance of 1956 as a watershed in Polish history, with some historians arguing that a more liberal image of the communist system in Poland was formed in 1956, while others argued that the communist dictatorship was stabilized by winning wider social support. The author has indicated an increasing separation between narratives about the Poznań protests in June and the political transformations in October, which has consequences and threats related to polarized perception of history, leading to meagre and simplified understanding of social realities of the Polish People’s Republic after 1956.
PL
The article is a brief survey and evaluation of historical research on Poznań 1956 protests, the political change in October 1956, and the year in general. An important gap was filled by the publication of Piotr Grzelczak’s book on the long-term consequences of the Poznań protests, and the conflict over its remembrance between government representatives and local inhabitants of the region, since the protests were one of the defining moments in recent history of Poznań. The article also includes a summary of the controversy between historians over the importance of 1956 as a watershed in Polish history, with some historians arguing that a more liberal image of the communist system in Poland was formed in 1956, while others argued that the communist dictatorship was stabilized by winning wider social support. The author has indicated an increasing separation between narratives about the Poznań protests in June and the political transformations in October, which has consequences and threats related to polarized perception of history, leading to meagre and simplified understanding of social realities of the Polish People’s Republic after 1956.
EN
The aim of this this study is to depict the process of shaping and development of special forces in the Polish historical space since 1918 as well as to illustrate the need for special forces to function as a guarantor of international and national security. The research method used in this study is primarily an analysis in the form of an in-depth study of Polish literature on special forces and special units, as well as synthesis, induction and a comparative method.
PL
Jednym z tematów poruszanych w projektach powstańczych powstałych po upadku powstania listopadowego była kwestia jeniectwa. Zagadnienie to do tej pory nie stało się jednak przedmiotem badań historycznych. Część polskich teoretyków, przede wszystkim zwolennicy wojny partyzanckiej, była przeciwna okazywaniu litości poddającym się przeciwnikom. Niektórzy z nich sugerowali nawet fizyczną eliminację schwytanych wrogich żołnierzy. Zwolennicy bezwzględnego obchodzenia się z przeciwnikiem swoje stanowisko argumentowali między innymi brakiem możliwości przetrzymywania jeńców w warunkach powstania prowadzonego partyzantką oraz złym traktowaniem pojmanych powstańców przez zwycięskich zaborców. Na drugim biegunie stał osamotniony Henryk Kamieński, który wiązał sporę nadzieje na to, że z jeńców uda się sformować rosyjskie oddziały walczące z caratem u boku Polaków.
EN
One of the topics raised in the insurrection projects envisaged after the fall of the November Uprising was the question of prisoners of war. This issue, however, has not yet been the subject of historical research. Some Polish theoreticians, in particular the supporters of the guerrilla war, were against showing mercy to surrendering opponents. Some of them even suggested terminating captured enemy soldiers. The supporters of ruthless handling of the opponent argued, among other things, that it was impossible to keep prisoners under the conditions of guerrilla insurgency and justified their viewpoint on the grounds of bad treatment of captured insurgents by the victorious invaders. At the other extreme, there was the lonely Henryk Kamieński who hoped that the prisoners of war could be turned into Russian troops fighting against Tsarist Russia alongside Poles.
PL
Artykuł został poświęcony tematyce recepcji przestrzeni toponimicznej w powieści polskiej pisarki XIX wieku Anny Nakwaski. Autor artykułu analizuje nazwy miejscowości, które zostały wykorzystane do oznaczenia terytorium Najjaśniejszej Rzeczpospolitej.
EN
The article is devoted to the reception of toponymic space in a little-known novel “Lithuanian insurgent” written by a Polish writer Anna Nakvaska. In the article place names that were used for a designation of the territory of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth are discussed.
PL
W artykule został przeanalizowany jeden z mało znanych aspektów powstania Bohdana Chmielnickiego – głód, który był zjawiskiem powszechnym zarówno w armii kozacko-tatarskiej, jak i polsko-litewskiej. Można wymienić kilka przyczyn podobnej sytuacji. Po pierwsze, to prawie całkowita ignorancja pytania zabezpieczenia żołnierza chociażby minimalną ilością żywności przez instytucje państwowe (dotyczy to zwłaszcza armii koronnej). Po drugie, to charakter i długotrwałość samej wojny, gdyż nieprzerywane działania wojenne, a także zniszczenie setek wiosek i miasteczek na współczesnej Ukrainie stworzyły sytuację, kiedy znalezienie oraz dostarczanie żywności dla ogromnych mas ludzi i zwierząt okazało się zadaniem bardzo skomplikowanym. Oddzielne jednostki w celu poszukiwania jedzenia dla żołnierzy i furażu dla koni musieli oddalać się na dziesiątki kilometrów od swoich sił głównych (dotyczyło to obu stron konfliktu). Po trzecie, to specyfika pewnych kampanii wojennych, na przykład blokada armii koronnej w Zbarażu latem 1649 r. Wszystkie wyżej wymienione czynniki doprowadzili do głodu po obu stronach konfliktu, więc nie dziwi, że opis tego nieszczęścia można znaleźć na stronach licznych ówczesnych źródeł, które były wykorzystane pod czas napisania tego artykułu.
EN
This article examines wide spread hunger among Cossack-Tatar and Polish-Lithuanian armies during Bohdan Khmelnytsky’s Uprising; a largely under researched topic. It argues that there were 3 main reasons of the hunger. Firstly, an almost complete absence of state institutions involvement in providing soldiers with necessary supplies contributed greatly to the problem (This was more relevant for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). Secondly, the destruction of hundreds of Ukrainian towns and villages made supplying the armies an extremely difficult task. Search parties from both sides had to travel tens of kilometres away from the main forces to look for food and fodder. Finally, the nature of individual campaigns also contributed to this situation, most notably the siege of Zbarazh in 1649. All the above factors led to devastating hunger on both sides of the conflict. Mentions of this hunger made it to the pages of multiple written sources used in this article.
RU
В данной статье рассмотрен малоизученный на сегодняшний день аспект восстания под предводительством Богдана Хмельницкого – голод, который был обыденным явлениям как для казацко-татарской, так и для польско-литовской армий. Причин подобной ситуации было несколько. Во-первых, это почти полное самоустранение государственных институций в вопросе обеспечения солдата хотя бы минимальным количеством продовольствия (разумеется, это более касалось армии Речи Посполитой). Во-вторых, это характер и продолжительность самой войны, когда беспрестанные военные действия, а также уничтожение сотен сел и местечек на украинских землях создали ситуацию, при которой снабжение провизией становилось архисложным заданием, а отряды для поиска еды для солдат и фуража для лошадей отходили на десятки километров от главных сил (это касалось обеих сторон конфликта). В-третьих, это специфика отдельных военных кампаний, например блокада коронной армии в Збараже летом 1649 р. Все эти факторы приводили к изнуряющему голоду, который испытали на себе солдаты с обеих сторон, что, соответственно, нашло свое отображение на страницах многочисленных источников, которые были использованы в данной статье
EN
The fall of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after the uprising of 1794 did not mean that Poles abandoned their independence efforts. In most political circles, there was a growing awareness that the hopes for regaining sovereignty should be tied to the political actions of France and the victorious Napoleon Bonaparte. After the victories on the fields of Jena and Auerstädt on October 14, 1806, the French army was tired and could not cope with the Prussian-Russian offensive. The remnants of the Prussian army remained on the former Polish territories, which made the French think of the possibility of an armed engagement of the Poles against them, in exchange for a vague promise of restoring Poland’s political existence. General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, founder of the Polish Legions in Italy, was chosen to organize a diversion in the enemy’s rear. In Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) the general was highly respected as a hero of the Kościuszko insurrection of 1794. Napoleon, wanting to win Poles over to his own political goals, decided to use the authority of Tadeusz Kościuszko, who turned out to be sceptical of French promises. The instrumental attitude towards the Polish leaders was confirmed both by the dishonest actions of French diplomacy and by Napoleon’s preserved correspondence. The announcement of the uprising in Greater Poland, which was enthusiastically welcomed by the urban population, was met with distrust by part of the society. The institution of the nobility’s mass mobilisation and conscription in the cantonal system were reactivated. The command of the created formations was often entrusted to officers with insurrection past, who in addition to moral authority, represented the continuity of tradition. Although there are many unknowns connected with the 1806 uprising, not only with regard to the attitude of the society, but also as far as the actions of French diplomacy are concerned, the scale of involvement of the Kościuszko Insurrection veterans in the next chance to rebuild the Republic of Poland has become a permanent part of historical memory.
PL
Upadek Rzeczypospolitej po powstaniu z 1794 roku nie przesądził o zaniechaniu dążeń niepodległościowych przez uczestników Insurekcji Kościuszkowskiej. Po zwycięstwach na polach Jeny i Auerstädt 14 października 1806 roku armia francuska była zmęczona i mogła nie sprostać ofensywie prusko-rosyjskiej. Na dawnych ziemiach polskich wciąż znajdowały się resztki armii pruskiej, co wysuwało na pierwszy plan kwestię zaangażowania Polaków przeciwko Prusom oraz wspierającej je Rosji w zamian za niejasną obietnicę przywrócenia Polakom bytu politycznego. Do zorganizowania dywersji na tyłach przeciwnika wybrano pełniącego funkcję generalnego inspektora kawalerii włoskiej generała Jana Henryka Dąbrowskiego, twórcę Legionów Polskich we Włoszech. W Wielkopolsce generał był otaczany szacunkiem, który zdobył podczas Insurekcji Kościuszkowskiej w 1794 roku. Chcąc pozyskać Polaków do realizacji własnych celów politycznych, Napoleon postanowił wykorzystać autorytet Tadeusza Kościuszki, silnie związanego z tradycją francuskiego i amerykańskiego Oświecenia. Kościuszko nie ufał deklaracjom Napoleona, nie stanął na czele Legionów Polskich, choć często występował w roli mentora wobec władz francuskich. Zdecydowanie odmówił także firmowania działań w Wielkopolsce. Jego sceptycyzm wzmacniało stanowisko dyplomacji francuskiej względem insurekcji z 1794 roku. Instrumentalne traktowanie polskich przywódców potwierdzają zarówno nieuczciwe działania dyplomacji francuskiej, jak i zachowana korespondencja Napoleona. Ogłoszenie powstania w Wielkopolsce, entuzjastycznie przyjęte przez mieszkańców miast, spotykało się z nieufnością części społeczeństwa. Reaktywowano instytucję pospolitego ruszenia szlachty, wzorem insurekcji przeprowadzono pobór w systemie kantonalnym. Dowództwo tworzonych formacji często powierzano oficerom z przeszłością insurekcyjną, którzy oprócz autorytetu moralnego reprezentowali ciągłość tradycji. Mimo że w epizodzie z 1806 roku pozostaje dostatecznie wiele niewiadomych, nie tylko w odniesieniu do postawy polskiego społeczeństwa, ale i działań dyplomacji francuskiej, skala zaangażowania weteranów Insurekcji Kościuszkowskiej w kolejną szansę odbudowy Rzeczypospolitej wpisuje się na trwałe do pamięci historycznej.
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